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FRONTISPIECE.

PLAN OP A FRUIT GARDEN.

ISO

BARRY'S

FRUIT OARDEK

P. BARRY

REVISED, ENLARGED, AND NEWLY ELECTROTYPED.

NEW YORK:
ORANGE JUDD AND COMPANY,

245 BROADWAY.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by

ORANGE JUDD & CO.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

LOVEJOY, SON & Co.,

ELECTROTYPKRS & STEEBOTYPKRS,

15 Vandewater Street, N. V.

INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION.

The subject of this treatise is one in which almost all
classes of the community are more or less practically en-
gaged and interested. Agriculture is pursued by one
class, and commerce by another; the mechanic arts, fine
arts, and learned professions by others ; but fruit culture,
to a greater or less extent, by all.

It is the desire of every man, whatever may be his pur-
suit or condition in life, whether he live in town or
country, to enjoy fine fruits, to provide them for his fam-
ily, and, if possible, to cultivate the trees in his own
garden with his own hands. The agriculturist, whatever
be the extent or condition of his grounds, considers an
orchard, at least, indispensable. The merchant or pro-
fessional man who has, by half a lifetime of drudgery in
town, secured a fortune or a competency that enables him
to retire to a country or suburban villa, looks forward to
his fruit garden as one of the chief sources of those rural
comforts and pleasures he so long and so earnestly labored
and hoped for. The nrtizan who has laid up enough from
his earnings to purchase a homestead, considers the plant-
ing of his fruit-trees as one of the first and most important
steps towards improvement. Jle anticipates the pleasure
of tending them in his spare hours, of watching their
growth and progress to maturity, and of gathering their
ripe and delicious fruits, and placing them before his
family and friends as the valued products of his own gar-
den, and of his own skill and labor. Fortunately, in the

VI INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION.

United States, land is so easily obtained as to be within
the reach of every industrious man ; and the climate and
soil being so favorable to the production of fruit, Ameri-
cans, if they be not already, must become truly " a nation
of fruit growers."

Fruit culture, therefore, whether considered as a branch
of profitable industry, or as exercising a most beneficial
influence upon the health, habits, and tastes of the people,
becomes a great national interest, and whatever may as-
sist in making it better understood, and more interesting,
and better adapted to the various wants, tastes, and cir-
cumstances of the community, cannot fail to subserve the
public good.

Within a few years past it has received an unusual de-
gree of attention. Plantations of all sorts, orchards,
gardens, and nurseries, have increased in numbers and
extent to a degree quite unprecedented ; not in one section
or locality, but from the extreme north to the southern
limits of the fruit-growing region. Foreign supplies of
trees have been required to meet the suddenly and greatly
increased demand. Treatises and periodicals devoted to
the subject have increased rapidly and circulated widely.
Horticultural societies have been organized in all parts ;
while exhibitions, and national, State, and local conven-
tions of fruit growers, have been held to discuss the
merits of fruits and other kindred topics.

To those unacquainted with the previous condition of
fruit culture in the inferior of the country, this new, plant-
ing spirit has appeared as a sort of speculative mania ; and
the idea has suggested itself to them that the country will
soon be overstocked with fruits. This is a greatly mis-
taken apprehension. After all that has been done, let us
look at the actual condition of fruit culture at the present
time. In the best fruit-growing counties in the State of
New York, the entire fruit plantations, of more than three-
fourths of the agricultural population, consist of very

INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. VII

ordinary orchards of apples. Not a dish of fine pears,
plums, cherries, apricots, grapes, nor raspberries, has ever
appeared on their tables, and not a step has yet been taken
to produce them. People are but beginning to learn the
uses of fruits, and to appreciate their importance.

At one time apples were grown chiefly for cider ; now
they are considered an indispensable article of food. The
finer fruits, that were formerly considered as luxuries only
for the tables of the wealthy, are beginning to take their
place among the ordinary supplies of every man's table ;
and this taste must grow from year to year, with an in-
creased supply.* Those who consume a bushel of fruit
this year, will require double or treble that quantity
next. The rapid increase of population alone, creates a
demand to an extent that few people are aware of. The
city of Rochester has added 20,000 to her numbers in
ten years. Let such an increase as this in all our cities,
towns, and villages, be estimated, and see what an aggre-
gate, annual amount of new consumers it presents.

New markets are continually presenting themselves, and
demanding large supplies. New and more perfect modes
of packing and shipping fruits, and of drying, preserving,
and preparing them for various purposes to which they
have not hitherto been appropriated, are beginning to en-
list attention and inquiry.

Immense amounts of money are annually expended in
importing grapes, wines, figs, nuts, prunes, raisins, cur-
rants, almonds, etc., many of which might be produced
perfectly well on our own soil. Pears have actually been
imported from France by the New York confectioners,
this present season (1851). These are facts that should
be well understood by proprietors of lands, and especially
by those who have allowed themselves to imagine that
fruit will soon be so plenty as not to be worth the grow-
ing.

It is too soon, by a century, to apprehend an over sup-

VIII INTRODUCTION TO FIKST EDITION.

ply of fruits in the United States, except of some very
perishable sort, in a season of unusual abundance, in some
particular locality, where one branch of culture is mainly
carried on.

It is because fruit culture has been almost entirely neg-
lected until within a few years, that the present activity
appears so extraordinary. A vast majority of the people
were quite unaware of the treasures within their reach ;
and that in regard to soil and climate, they possessed ad-
vantages for fruit growing superior to any other nation.
We had no popular works or periodicals to diffuse informa-
tion or awaken interest on the subject. For fourteen or
fifteen years Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture was the
only journal exclusively devoted to gardening subjects,
and it only found its way into the hands of the more ad-
vanced cultivators. We had some treatises on fruits, but
none of them circulated sufficiently to effect much good.
Previous to 1845, Kenrick's American Orchardist, and
Manning 's Book of Fruits, were the principal treatises
that had any circulation worth naming. Coxe's work,
Floy's, Prince's, and some others, were confined almost
wholly to nurserymen, or persons already engaged and
interested in fruit culture in the older parts of the country.

Mr. Downing's " Fruit and Fruit Trees of America,"
that appeared in 1845, was the first treatise of the kind
that really obtained a wide and general circulation.

It made its appearance at a favorable moment, just as
the planting spirit referred to wras beginning to manifest
itself, and when, more than at any previous period, such
a work was needed. Mr. Downing enjoyed great advan-
tages over any previous American writer. During the
ten years that had elapsed since the publication of Ken-
rick's and Prince's treatises, a great fund of materials had
been accumulating. Messrs. Manning, Kenrick, Prince,
Wilder, and many others, had been industriously collect-
ing fruits both at home and abroad. The Massachusetts

INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. IX

Horticultural Society was actively engaged in its labors.
The London Horticultural Society had made great ad-
vancement in its examination and trial of fruits, and had
corrected a multitude of long standing errors in nomen-
clature.

Mr. Downing's work had the benefit of all this ; and
possessing the instructive feature of outline figures of
fruits, and being written in a very agreeable and attrac-
tive style, it possessed the elements of popularity and
usefulness in an eminent degree. Hence it became at
once the text-book of every man who sought for porno-
logical information, or felt interested in fruits or fruit-
trees ; and to it is justly attributable much of the taste
and spirit on the subject,, and the increased attention to
nomenclature, that so distinguishes the present time. Mr.
Thomas's recent treatise, " The American Fruit Culturist,"
on the same plan as Mr. Downing's, is also a popular
work, and will be the means of diffusing both taste and
information. Mr. Thomas is a close and accurate ob-
server, and his descriptions are peculiarly concise, methodi-
cal, and minute. "Cole's Fruit Book" is also a recent
treatise, and on account of its cheapness, and the vast ac-
cumulation of facts and information it contains, is highly
popular and useful. Besides these, periodicals, devoted
more or less to the subject, have increased in number, and
greatly extended their circulation, so that information is
now accessible to all who desire it.

The light which has been shed upon fruit-growing by
these works, and the taste they have created, have not
only improved old systems of cultivation, but introduced
new ones. Until within a few years, nothing was said or
known among the great body of cultivators, or even nur-
serymen, of dwarfing trees, of the uses of certain stocks,
or of modes of propagation and pruning by which trees
are made to bear early, and are adapted to different cir-
cumstances. The entire routine of the propagation and
1*

X INTRODUCTION TO FIEST EDITION.

management of trees was conducted generally in the sim-
plest and rudest manner. Whether for the garden or the
orchard, they were propagated in the same manner, on
the same stocks, and in the same form taken from the
nursery, planted out, and left there to assume such forms
as nature or accident might impose, and produce fruit at
such a time as natural circumstances would admit.

The art of planting fifty trees on a quarter of an acre
of ground, and bringing them into a fruitful state in four
or five years at most, was entirely unknown. Small gar-
dens were encumbered with tall, unshapely, and unfruitful
trees, that afforded no pleasure to the cultivator; and
thousands of persons, who are now the most enthusiastic
cultivators, were entirely discouraged from the attempt.

Fruit gardening, properly speaking, may be said to
have only commenced. It is no longer a matter of mere
utility, but taste also ; and, therefore, adaptation, variety,
and beauty are sought for in garden trees, and modes of
culture and management. Nothing so distinguishes the
taste of modern planting as the partiality for dwarf trees,
and the desire to obtain information in regard to their
propagation and treatment.

This has not been anticipated by any of our authors.
The standard or orchard system alone is fully treated of,
as being the only one practised ; and this requires so little
skill in the art of culture, that only the simplest instruc-
tions have been given. The very elements of the science
have been unexplained and unstudied, and cultivators in
the main find themselves both destitute of knowledge in
regard to the management of trees in the more refined
and artificial forms, and the sources from which to obtain
it. But a very small proportion of those engaged or en-
gaging in tree culture have studied the physiology of
trees in any degree. Very few have the slightest knowl-
edge of the modes of growth and bearing of. the different
species of fruits, or even of the difference between wood

INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. XI

or leaf-buds and fruit-buds. Very few understand the
functions of the different parts of trees, and the relation
in which they stand one to another ; the principles that
govern and regulate the growth and maturity, the forma-
tion of wood, and the production of fruit. Practice is
no better understood than principle. Persons engaged
largely in tree growing will frequently ask the most ab-
surd questions on the subject of propagation of stocks, of
pruning, etc., matters that should be understood by every
man who has a single tree to manage, but especially in-
dispensable to those who wish to succeed in conducting
garden-trees under certain modified forms, more or less
opposed to the natural. The preparation of ground, lay-
ing out small gardens, the selection of suitable trees, and
a multitude of minor, but nevertheless, important matters
are very imperfectly understood. Neither our State nor
national governments have ever manifested a disposition
to favor the rural arts with anything like a liberal patron-
izing policy. Advanced, wealthy, and powerful as we are,
not a single step has been taken, in earnest, to establish
model farms or model gardens, in which experiments
might be made, and examples given, that would enlighten
cultivators, and elevate and honor their profession. What-
ever advance has been made, is due wholly to individual
taste, energy, and enterprise ; and to these alone are we
permitted to look for future progress.

Having for many years devoted much attention to this
particular branch of culture, and feeling deeply interested
in its success, and having, by a business intercourse with
cultivators in all parts of the country, an ample opportu-
nity of understanding the nature and extent of the infor-
mation desired, I have prepared the following pages to
supply it, at least, in part.

I am well convinced that the work is neither perfect nor
complete. It has been prepared, during a few weeks of

XII IXTKODTJCTION TO FIKST EDITION.

the winter, in the midst of other engagements that ren-
dered it impossible to bestow upon it the necessary care
and labor. My original intention was to give a few brief
directions for the management of garden-trees, but it was
suggested by friends that it would prove more generally
useful by adding a sketch of the entire routine of opera-
tions, from the propagation in the nursery to the manage-
ment in the orchard and garden. This has involved much
more labor than it was intended to bestow upon it, or than
I could really spare frorrubusiness. It has, therefore, been
performed hastily, and, of course, in many respects, im-
perfectly; but yet it is hoped it contains such an exposi-
tion of principles and practices as cannot fail to diffuse
amongst the inexperienced much needed information. All
doubtful theories, and whatever had not a direct practical
bearing on the subjects treated, have been excluded, both
for the sake of brevity, and to avoid anything calculated
to mislead. The principles and practices set forth are not
new, visionary, nor doubtful, but such as are taught and
practised by the most accomplished cultivators of the
day, and have been successfully carried out in the daily
operations of our own establishment.

In the pruning and management of garden-trees, the
French arboriculturists surpass all others. Their trees
are models that have no equals, and that all the world
admire. The English, notwithstanding their great gar-
dening skill, and their refined and elegant modes of cul-
ture, are far behind the French in the management of
fruit-trees. French systems of pruning and training are
at this moment advocated and held up as models *.,y such
men as Mr. Robert Thompson, head of the fruit depart-
ment in the London Horticultural Society's Garden ; by
Mr. Hivers, well known on this side of the Atlantic as
one of the most energetic and accomplished nurserymen
in Great Britain, and by many others whose skill and
judgment command attention. Their introduction to

INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION. XIII

English gardens is going on rapidly, and bi<ls fair to revo-
lutionize their whole practice of fruit-tree culture.

D'Albret's great work on pruning is conceded to be the
best extant, on that subject. He was the pupil and suc-
cessor of M. Thouin, the world-renowned, vegetable physi-
ologist and founder of the great national gardens at Paris.
His practice is founded upon the true principles of vege-
table physiology, and strengthened by long years of the
most minute and successful experiment.

M. Dubreuil, late conductor of the fruit department in
the Garden of Rouen, has also published an excellent
treatise on arboriculture ; and there are many other French
works on the subject, all showing how thoroughly the
science is there understood, and how minutely and skil-
fully its principles are dealt with. All these, as well as
the best managed gardens, and the most perfect and beau-
tiful trees in France and Belgium, have been carefully
studied.

The knowledge thus acquired, added to the experience
of many years' actual and extensive practice, constitutes
the basis of the course recommended.

The same minute detail that characterizes European
works has not been attempted, yet much detail is abso-
lutely necessary, in order to prevent misapprehension on
the part of those wholly inexperienced.

Writers are apt to treat simple matters too much in the \
general, presuming them to be well understood. Detail
13 always tedious to those familiar with the subject, but
nothing less can be satisfactory to the student. ^

For the sake of convenient reference, the different
branches of the subject have been separated into four
parts. The first treats of general principles, a knowledge
of the structure, character, and functions of the different
parts of trees, modes of growth, bearing, etc., etc. ; soils,
manures, modes of propagation, etc. This must be the
groundwork of the study of tree culture. The seco)id

XIV INTRODUCTION TO FIRST EDITION.

treats of the nursery. The third of plantations, orchards
of different kinds, gardens, etc. ; their laying out and
management, and of the pruning and training of trees in
different forms. The fourth contains abridged descrip-
tions of the best fruits, a chapter on gathering and pre-
serving fruits, another on diseases and insects, and another
on the implements in common use.

Illustrations have been introduced wherever the nature
of the subject seemed to require them, and it was possible
to get them prepared. It is believed that these will prove
of great value in imparting a correct knowledge of the
various subjects. Upwards of one hundred of the more
important figures have been drawn from nature by Pro-
fessor Sintzenich, of Rochester.

P. B.

Mount Hope Garden and Nurseries, \
ROCHESTER, N. Y. J

PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

Twenty years ago the First Edition of this Treatise
was published. What marvellous changes have taken
place in our country during that period.

Our population has been fully doubled. The Railway
has spanned the continent and brought its most remote
parts within a few days' pleasant travel of each other.
The Telegraph has brought together, as it were, every
part of the world.

Territories that then had scarcely a white inhabitant
are now populous and productive States.

In this general and extraordinary progress, Fruit Cul-
ture seems to have held its own.

In every part of our country, wherever the soil and cli-
mate offer the least encouragement, Fruit trees are planted.
The fruits of California attract almost as much attention
as the products of her mines ; yet, twenty years ago, there
was scarcely an apple produced in the State, except in
some of the old mission gardens.

Societies for the promotion of Fruit Culture are organ-
ized everywhere. Books on the subject are multiplied
rapidly.

Horticultural periodicals are increasing, and the agricul-
XY

XVI PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.

tural journals, now so numerous, all give fruit culture spe-
cial attention.

We have made important acquisitions in the way of new
varieties of fruits, particularly in grapes, and we have
gained much valuable experience, both in methods of cul-
ture and in regard to the relative merits of varieties under
various circumstances of soil, climate, etc., but we have
yet much to learn. Questions of pruning, training, tillage
of the soil, etc., are djscussed as warmly among practical
men as they were twenty years ago. Diseases, such as
the " pear blight," are as much a mystery as ever.

The First Edition was hastily prepared, and was, conse-
quently, imperfect. My intention was to revise and cor-
rect it very soon, but engagements, increasing from year
to year, caused it to be neglected. Some five or six years
ago I felt that, in many respects, it had fallen behind, and
had its publication stopped. Then, seeing numerous other
works on fruit culture appear, I concluded not to revise it.
Lately, however, at the solicitation of friends, I have un-
dertaken it ; but, for several reasons, have not been able
to give it the attention it demanded.

The most important part of the revision has been the
lists of varieties of fruits which are now made to conform
to recent experience. Several other parts, however, have
been re-written, and others altered and corrected.

P. B.

PART I.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER I.

NAMES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND OFFICES OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS
OF FRUIT TREES, ......

SOILS,

CHAPTER II.

CHAPTER IH.

MANURES,

CHAPTER IV.
THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES,

CHAPTER V.
PRUNING — ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE,

PART II.
THE NURSERY.

CHAPTER I.
SOIL, SITUATION, ETC., .....

21—69

69—74

74—80

80—100

. 100—118

. 121—172

PART III.

THE LAYING OUT, ARRANGEMENT, AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT OF PERMANENT PLANTATIONS
OF FRUIT TREES, SELECTION OF TREES AND
VARIETIES, AND PRUNING AND CONDUCTING
TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS.

CHAPTER I.
PERMANENT PLANTATIONS OF FRUIT TREES, . . . 175—220

CHAPTER II.

PRUNING AND TRAINING APPLIED TO THE DIFFERENT SPECIES

OF FRUIT TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS, . . . 220—326

PART IV.

SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, GATHERING AND
PRESERVING FRUITS, DISEASES, INSECTS, IM-
PLEMENTS IN COMMON USE.

CHAPTER I.
ABRIDGED DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS, . 329—437

CHAPTER II.

GATHERING, PACKING, TRANSPORTATION, AND PRESERVATION

OF FRUITS, ....... 437—449

CHAPTER III.
DISEASES AND INSECTS, . . . . . . 449—466

CHAPTER IV.
NURSERY, ORCHARD, AND FRUIT-GARDEN IMPLEMENTS, . 466—480

GENERAL PRINCIPLES

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER I.

NAMES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND OFFICES OF THE DIF-
FERENT PARTS OF FRUIT-TREES.

General Remarks. — A Tree is a living body, composed
of many parts, such as roots, branches, leaves, buds, blos-
soms, fruit, etc. All these have different offices to fulfil,
assume different forms and characters, and are known and
designated from one another by different names, when
subjected to the practical operations of culture. Without
some knowledge of the names and structure of these dif-
ferent parts, of the principles that guide their develop-
ment, their relative connection with, and influence upon
one another, tree culture cannot be, to any man, really
pleasant, intellectual, or successful ; but a misty, uncer-
tain, unintelligible routine of manual labor.

The industry of our times is peculiarly distinguished
by the application of science — the union of theory with
practice in every department ; and surely the votaries of
the garden, whose labors, of all others, should be intelli-
gent, will not allow themselves to fall behind, and per-
form their labors in the dark.

Fully sensible of the importance of this preliminary
study, and confident that the minute and practical details
of culture cannot be well understood without it, I propose
here, before entering upon the main subject, to describe,
in as few and as plain words as possible, the structure,
character, connection, and respective offices of the various
21

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

parts of fruit-trees, and the names by which each is
known in practice.

SECTION 1. — THE ROOT.

THE ROOT is composed of several parts.
1st. The collar (A, fig. 1), which is the center of
growth, or point of union be-
tween the root and stem, usu-
ally at or just below the surface
of the ground. In root grafting
seedlings, this is the point where
the graft is set.

2d. The body or main root
(J5, fig. 1), which usually pene-
trates the earth in a vertical di-
rection, and decreases in size as
it proceeds downwards from the
collar. It is also called the tap-
root. A seedling that has not
been transplanted has usually
but one descending or tap-root,
furnished, in all its length, with
minute hairy fibres.

3d. The lateral roots (C, fig.
1) are principal divisions or
branches of the main root, and
take more or less of a spreading
or horizontal direction. When
seedlings are transplanted, a por-
tion of the tap-root is cut off, and
these lateral, or side roots, are
immediately formed.

4th. The fibres or rootlets (Z>, fig. 1) are the minute
hair-like roots which we see most abundant on trees that
have been frequently transplanted. Difterent species of

Fig. 1.— A TREE.
A, the Collar ; B, the Main Root ;
C, Lateral Root ; Z>, Fibres ; E,
Stem, or Trunk ; ^,Main Branch-
es ; G, Secondary Branches ; H,
Shoots of one year's growth.

THE BOOT. 23

trees vary much in their natural tendency to produce
fibres. Thus the pear and the apple require frequent
transplanting, and often root pruning, to produce that
fibrous condition, which is necessary to great fruitfulness ;
whilst the roots of the paradise apple, used as a stock for
dwarf trees, and the quince, are always quite fibrous, the
former never, and the latter seldom, requiring root
pruning.

The Spongioles is a term, which was formerly applied
to the extremities of the root fibres, it being supposed
that these tips were especial organs through which the
plant absorbed its food from the soil. Later observations
have shown that the absorbing surface of the rootlet is
not at the very extremity, but just back of it ; and that
instead of there being a spongiole, or spongelet, the spe-
cial office of which is to take up moisture, all the newly
formed root surface does this work, in which it is facili-
tated by great numbers of root hairs, which are delicate
projections from the surface, and so minute as to be only
visible by the aid of a microscope. The root fibres are
composed of soft, newly formed, delicate tissue, and are
exceedingly susceptible of injury. The slightest bruise,
or exposure to a dry or cold air, is fatal to them ; and this
is the reason why transplanted trees generally receive
such a severe check, and so frequently die. If trees could
be taken up in such a way that the root fibres could all, or
mostly, be preserved, trees would receive no check what-
ever. By taking proper precautions, large trees are re-
moved in midsummer without a leaf flagging.

The Growth of Hoots. — The root increases in length
by additions to its extreme point only. It does not ex-
tend throughout its whole length, as does the joint of a
stem. This manner of growth allows it to accommodate
itself to the obstacles that it meets in its course. The ex-
tremities of the roots, at first, consist of cellular tissue
only, but soon woody fibre is formed in them, and their

24 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

internal structure is, essentially, like that of the stem,
which will be described further along. The material for
the growth of the root is supplied by the stem and leaves
above, and these, in turn, are furnished with the crude
material for their own support and enlargement by the
roots. The parts of the tree above the surface of the
ground, and those below it, are dependent each upon the
other for growth and existence. Practical cultivators
are familiar with many facts that illustrate the intimate
relations and mutual dependency of the roots and stems.
For instance, where one portion of the head or branches
is much larger or more vigorous than the other, if the
roots be examined, it will be found that those immedi-
ately under, or in direct connection with the largest
branches, will have a corresponding size and vigor. In
cases where one side of the top of a large tree is cut off,
as in top grafting, a large number of new shoots are pro-
duced on the cut branch, and, if the roots be examined
under, or in connection with this branch, a corresponding
new growth will be found there. It is quite obvious,
from these and similar facts, that whatever affects the
roots or stems of trees, favorably or unfavorably, affects
the whole tree. If the foliage of a tree be entirely re-
moved in the growing season, the absorbent action of the
roots is suspended ; and if the absorbing portions of the
roots be cut off, the growth of the top instantly ceases.

SECTION 2. — THE STEM.

The Stem is that part of a tree which starts from the
collar, and grows upwards. It sustains all the branches,
and forms the medium of communication between the
different parts of the tree, from one extremity to the
other.

Plants, like the grape, with twining, or climbing stems,
are called vines; and such as have no main stem, but have

THE STEM. 25

branches diverging from the collar, as the gooseberry,
currant, etc., are called shrubs , or bushes. Where the
stem is destitute of branches to some distance from the
ground, it is usually called the trunk.

Different Parts of the Stem. — A stem, or branch of a
tree, is composed of the following parts, which are dis-
tinctly observable when we cut it across. Figure 2 repre-
sents a portion of a stem of a young tree, one year old,
A ,

CO JS F

Fig. 2.— SECTION OF A STEM ONE YEAR OLD— MAGNIFIED.

A, Bark ; B, Wood ; C, Epidermis ; Z?, Corky Layer ; E, Green Layer ; F, Inner

Bark, or Liber; (?, Pith; H, Medullary Rays; /, Woody Fibre; K, Dotted

Ducts ; L, Spiral Ducts.

so cut as to show a cross section, and a longitudinal one
at the same time. The bark, included in the dotted line
A, consists of an outer and inner bark.

The Rind, or Outer BarJc, is composed of three layers.

1. The Epidermis, or Cuticle (C), which is found only
on recent shoots, and the young parts of trees ; this is
thin, smooth, and delicate, like tissue paper, and is easily
separated from the parts beneath it. Next within this is

2. The Corky Layer (D), which is usually of some
shade of brown or ash color; this, seen through the epi-

26 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

«r

dermis, gives to the young growth of trees its peculiar
color, by means of which the experienced cultivator is
enabled to distinguish varieties, even when not in leaf.
Within the corky layer is

3. The Green Layer (E), which gives to the young
shoots their green color. This, as the wood ripens, is
soon covered by the corky layer.

The Inner Bark, or Liber (F). — This is the interior
portion of the bark, in immediate contact with the wood.
It is composed of perpendicular layers of soft, flexible
but very tough fibres. It is this part of the bark of the
Bass\vood that is used for tying in budding, etc., the tissue
being separated by maceration.

The bark remains with these distinct layers, only for .1
few years. It scales off, and falls away in forms varying
with the kind of tree, but in all cases a portion of the in-
ner bark is left attached to the tree. In the grape-vine,
the inner bark, or -liber, is renewed each year, and that
formed the year before is thrown off in long shreds.

Within the bark we have the Avood, and in the center
the pith. The wood is divided into

1. The Sap-wood (included in the dotted line £). — This
is the youngest, or last formed, layer of wood, immediate-
ly below the inner bark. It is distinguished in all trees
by being softer and lighter colored than the older parts.

2. The "Heart, or Perfect wood. — This is the central,
or interior portion of the stem, or branch, grown firm and
mature by age. It is generally a shade darker in color
than the newly formed part, or sap-wood. As the en-
graving, fig. 2, shows a stem only one year old, this is
not represented.

3. The Pith (6r). — This is the soft, spongy substance
in the center of the stem nnd branches. In soft-wooded
species, like the grape-vine, it is large ; in hard-wooded
species, as the apple, pear, quince, etc., it is small. In young
shoots it is soft, green, and succulent, and fills an impor*

THE STEM. 27

tant part in their development. In the old part it is dry,
shrivelled, and seems incapable of taking any part in the
process of vegetation, and this appears evident from the
fact that trees often continue to nourish after the center,
containing the pith, has begun to decay.

/Structure of the Stein. — The stem is composed of
woody fibre and cellular tissue, a substance similar to the
pith. The woody fibre is arranged in perpendicular lay-
ers, and the cellular tissue in horizontal layers, running
from the pith to the bark and connecting them. The
mingling of these two systems gives to the surface of the
cross section of a stem the
beautiful veined or netted ap-
pearance observable in fig. 3,
which represents the cross-
section of an oak branch. The
perpendicular layers of woody
fibre are most clearly observ-
able when we cut a stem ver-
tically; they are then easily
separated from one another. Fig. 3. — SECTION OF A BKANCH
The layers, or plates of tissue OF OAK-

radiating from the center to the circumference of the stem
and inner bark are called the medullary rays. Two of these
are shown in fig. 2, marked by the dotted lines H.

Growth of the Stem. — The stem of a tree is originally
the extension of the cellular tissue of the seed. As soon
as leaves are formed they organize new matter, which de-
scends and forms woody fibres : the layers sent down
from the first leaves are covered by those sent down
from the next, and so on, one layer after another is pro-
duced until the end of the season, when the leaves fall and
growth ceases. A yearling tree has, therefore, a greater
number of layers of woody fibre at the collar than at the
top, and is, consequently, thicker; the second year the
buds on the first year's growth produce shoots, and these

28 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

organize new layers of woody fibre, that descend and cover
those of the previous year, and thus growth proceeds from
year to year. Between each year's growth there is gener-
ally a line, in some cases more conspicuous than in others,
that marks off the formation of each year, so that we are
able to reckon the ages of trees with great accuracy by
these rings. When it happens that a tree, from certain
circumstances, makes more growth one reason than an-
other, we find the ring of that season larger. The new
wood in all our northern trees is always formed between
the inner bark and the last layer of wood, so that one
layer is laid upon, and outside of another, and the bark
is continually pressed outwards.

The new layers of bark are also formed at the same
place, or within the previous one. From this mode of
growth, it results that each layer of wood is more deeply
imbedded as others are formed above it ; and each layer
of bark is pressed outwards as others are formed within
it. In some cases, as in the cherry, for example, the bark
is so tough as not always to yield to the general expansion
of the tree, and slitting is resorted to for the purpose of
preventing an unnatural rupture, which would eventually
take place by the continued pressure of growth from
within.

SECTION 3. — BRANCHES.

Branches are the divisions of the stem, and have an
organization precisely similar : they are designated as,

1st. Main Branches (F, fig. 1) ; those that are directly
connected with the stem or trunk. In pyramidal trees,
they are called lateral branches. The branches of different
species and varieties of fruit trees, differ much in their
habits of growth ; and it is highly important to the
planter to consider these peculiarities, because certain
habits of growth are better adapted to particular circum-

BRANCHES.

stances than others. Thus we have erect branches (fig. 4),
which produce trees of an upright and compact form.
Curved erect branches (fig. 5), proceeding almost horizon-
tally from the stem for a short distance, and then becoming
erect; these, also, form upright symmetrical heads, but
much more open than the preceding. Also, horizontal,
or spreading branches (fig. 6), that form wide-spreading

Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

DIFFERENT HABITS OF GROWTH OF TREES.
Fig. 4, Erect ; Fig. 5, Curved Erect ; Fig. 6, Spreading, or Horizontal.

heads with irregular outline. And, lastly, drooping
branches, when they fall below the horizontal line. The
branches of most varieties of apples and pears become
pendulous when they have borne for some time ; and even
in young trees of particular varieties, some of the branches
assume a drooping and irregular habit.

2d. Secondary Branches ( 6r, fig. 1), are the divisions
of the main branches : occasionally those near the stem
take such a prominent part in forming the outline of the
tree, as to assume all the character of main branches, ex-
cepting in position.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

3d. Shoots (H, fig. 1). This is the name by which
young parts are designated from the time they emerge
from the bud until they have completed their first season's
growth. These have also important peculiarities that
serve to distinguish certain varieties. They are variously
designated as stout or slender, stiff1 or flexible, erect or
spreading, short-jointed if the buds be close together,

Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9.

Fig. 7, Wood-branch of the Apple; Fig. 8, Fruit-branch: A, B, C, Young Fruit-
spurs on two-year-old wood ; Fig. 9, Fruit-branch of the Pear ; A, B, C, Young
Spurs on two-year-old wood.

and long-jointed when the contrary. The colors of their
barks are also strikingly different, and. form very obvious
distinctions amongst varieties. The Snow Peach, for in-
stance, has pale greenish shoots, by which it is at once
distinguished. The Jargonelle, Rostiezer, and many other
varieties of the pear, have dark purplish shoots, while the

BRANCHES.

Dix and /St. Germain are quite yellowish, the Glou Mor-
ceau, grey or drab, and the Bartlett and Buffum quite
reddish. The shoots of certain varieties of apples and
pears, and especially plums, are distinguished by being
downy, as they are furnished to a greater or less extent
with a soft and hairy covering — in some cases barely ob-
servable.

4th. Wood-Branches (fig. 7), are those bearing only
wood buds.

5th. Fruit-Branches are those bearing fruit buds ex-
clusively. They are presented to us under different forms
and circumstances, all of which it is of the highest im-
portance to understand.

In kernel-fruits, such as the apple and pear, the most
ordinary form of the
fruit branch is that
generally called the
fruit-spur (A, B, (7,
figs. 8, 9, 10). It ap-
pears first as a promi-
nent bud, as in fig. 8,
on wood at least two
years old; and for
two or three seasons it
produces but a rosette
of leaves, and con-
tinues to increase in
length, as in fig. 10.
After it has produced
fruit, it generally branches, and, if properly managed,
will bear fruit for many years. Apple and pear-trees of
bearing age, and in a fruitful condition, will .be found
covered with these spurs on all parts of the head, except
the young shoots. In addition to the fruit-spur, there
are, on the kernel-fruits, slender fruit-branches, about as
large as a goose quill, and from six to eight inches in

Fig. 10.— FRUIT-BRANCH OP THE PEAR.
A, B, <?, Older Spurs.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

length (fig. 11) ; the buds are long, narrow, and promi-
nent, and the first year or two after their appearance,
produce but rosettes of leaves, yielding fruit generally
about the third year. On trees
well furnished with fruit-spurs,
these slender branches are of little
account, but they are useful on
young trees itot fully in a bearing
state. They are generally pro-
duced on the lower or older parts
of the branches or stem, and, in
the first place, are slender shoots
with wood-buds only ; but owing
to their unfavorable position and
feeble structure, they receive only
a small portion of the ascending
sap, and the consequence is, they
become stunted, and transformed
into fruit-branches. In pruning
young trees, slender shoots are
frequently bent over, or fastened
in a crooked position to transform
them into fruit-branches of this
kind ; but this will be treated of
in its proper place.

Certain varieties of apples have
a natural habit of bearing the fruit
on the points of the lateral shoots ;
and frequently these terminal
fruit-buds are formed during the
first season's growth of the shoot. Fig. 12 is an example ;
A, is the point where a fruit was borne last season ; It, a
shoot of last season ; and (7, its terminal bud, which is a
fruit-bud. The fruit-branches of the peach, apricot, and
nectarine, are productions of one season's growth ; the
fruit-buds form one season and blossom the next ; but as

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Fig. 11, slender fruit-branch
of the apple— all the buds arc
fruit-buds. Fig. 12, a branch
of the apple showing the
tendency of some varieties to
bear on the points of the
branches. A, the point where
the fruit was borne last sea-
son ; B, a shoot of last year ;
C, its terminal fruit-bud.

BRANCHES.

on the apple and pear, there are different
forms of the fruit-branch.

In the first place the fruit-spur (fig. 13), a
group of buds like a bouquet ; these are little
stunted branches on the older wood that have
assumed this form. The most important fruit-
branches of these trees are the vigorous shoots
of last season's growth, containing both fruit-
and wood-buds (fig. 14), and the slender fruit-
branches, bearing all single fruit-buds, except
a wood-bud or two at the base. Fig. 15,
represents such a branch
of the peach, A and B
being wood-buds. The
fruit - branches of the
plum and cherry, and
the gooseberry and cur-
rant are similarly pro-
duced. A yearling shoot
for instance, the second
season, will produce a
shoot from its terminal
bud, and probably shoots from two or three
other buds immediately below the terminal,
whilst those lower down will be transformed
into fruit-buds, and produce fruit the third
season. Fig. 16 is a branch of the cherry. A
is the two-year-old wood ; B, one year ; C and
J9, fruit-spurs on the two-year-old wood, with
a wood-bud usually at the point. Fig. 17 is a
fruit spur from the older wood ; A, the wood-
bud at its point. Fig. 18 is a branch of the
plum ; A, the two-year-old wood ; J5, one year

Fig. 14, mixed wood and fruit-branches of the peach ; B, C, D, 2?, fruit-buds ;
F, G, H, leaf-buds ; J, double buds ; (7, triple buds, the two side buds being fruit-
buds, and the center one, a leaf-bud.

Fig. 13.— FRUIT-SPUR OP

THE PEACH ON THE OLD
WOOD.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

old; C and .Z>, spurs. Fig. 19 is a fruit-spur from older
wood. The wood-bud in the centre of these groups of
buds on the spur enables them to increase in length every

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 15, a slender fruit-branch of the peach ; all the buds except A and B, and

the terminal one, are fruit-buds. Fig. 16, branch of the cherry ; A, two-year-old

wood ; jB, one year; Cand Z>, fruit-spurs. Fig. 17, fruit-ppur of the cherry; the

bud^l, in the center of the group, is a wood-bud.

season. New buds are produced to replace those that
bear, and so the spurs continue fruitful for several years,

BUDS. 35

according to the vigor of the tree, and the manner in
which it is treated.

The fruit-branches of the quince and the medlar are

Fig. 18. Fig. 19.

Fig. 18, branch of the plum ; A, two-year-old wood ; B< one year old ; C and
Z>, spurs. Fig. 19, fruit-spur of the plum on the old wood.

slender twigs on the sides of lateral branches, and the
fruit is borne on their points.

SECTION 4. — BUDS.

1st. The Nature and Functions of Suds. — In a practi-
cal point of view, buds are certainly the most important
organs of trees, because it is through them we are enabled
completely to direct and control their forms and their
productiveness. Whoever, therefore, wishes to become
a skilful and successful tree culturist, must not fail to

36 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

make himself familiar with all their forms, modifications,
modes of development, and the purposes they are adapted
to fulfil in the formation of the tree and its products. The
immediate causes of the production of buds on the grow-
ing shoots of trees, and the sources from which they spring
or in which they originate, are alike thus far mysterious,
notwithstanding they have been the subject of a vast deal
of research and speculation among the botanists and vege-
table physiologists. We are able, however, to trace clear-
ly and satisfactorily the objects they are intended to fulfil
in the development of the tree, their connection with, and
dependency upon other parts, and the circumstances un-
der which they can be made to accomplish specific pur-
poses.

Every bud contains the rudiments of, and is capable
under favorable circumstances of producing, a new indi-
vidual similar to that on which it is borne.

This fact is clearly demonstrated in the propagation of
trees by budding, where a single eye is removed from one
shoot and placed in the wood of another, to which it
unites and forms a new individual similar to its parent.
So in propagation by eyes, as in the grape-vine, where a
single bud with a small portion of wood attached, becomes
a perfect plant.

Every perfect bud we find on a young yearling tree or
shoot is capable of being developed into a branch. Ka-
turally, they all do not develope ; but we know that by
the application of art they can be readily forced to do so.

For instance, the buds of a yearling tree, if left to take
their natural course, will only in part produce branches,
and these will generally be nearer to the extremities,
where they are the most excitable ; but we can cause the
lower ones to develope branches, by cutting off those
above them to the extent that the particular character of
the species or variety, or of the buds themselves in respect
to vigor and vitality, may require. Hence it is that the

BFDS. 37

forms of trees are so completely under our control when
we possess the requisite knowledge of the character and
modes of vegetation of buds.

2d. The Names and Characters of Buds. — All buds are
either, 1st, terminal, as when on the points of shoots ((7,
fig. 20) ; 2d, axillary, when situated in the angle made by
the projection of a leaf from the shoot or branch (A, B,
fig. 20) ; 3d, adventitious or accidental, when originating
accidentally, as it were, or without any regularity, on the
older parts of trees, and not in the axil of a leaf. They
are often produced by the breaking or cutting off of a
branch, or by a wound or incision made in the bark. In
the management of trained trees, special means are taken

Fig. 20.
A) a superior bud ; 5. inferior ; C, terminal : A and 5, axillary.

to produce these buds on spaces of the trunk that it is de-
sirable to fill up. We sometimes see instances of such
buds on the stumps of old trees.

The terminal and axillary buds produced on young
shoots, seem to have a different origin from these ac-
cidental buds — the former are connected with the pith of
the shoot, as we may see by dissecting them. On cutting
into a young shoot below a bud we find a cylinder of pith
entering into the bud from the pith of the shoot, but we
do not find this connection existing in the case of the
adventitious buds.

Practically considered, buds are classified as follows: —
1. lateral. — Those on the sides or circumference of

38 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

shoots, being the axillary buds of the botanist (A, _Z?, fig.
20).

2. Terminal. — Those on the points of shoots ( C, fig. 20).

3. Superior. — Those on the upper side of horizontal
branches (A, fig. 20).

4. Inferior. — Those on the lower side of horizontal
branches (J5, fig. 20).

5. Stipular. — The small, barely visible buds found at
the base of ordinary buds.

6. Dormant or Latent. — These are scarcely apparent
buds, generally towards the base of branches : They may
remain dormant for several years, and then, in some spe-
cies, be excited into growth by pruning close to them.

Buds are again classed as leaf-buds and fruit-buds.

7. Leaf-Buds (F, G, H, fig. 14), produce either leaves
or branches ; they differ in form from fruit-buds in being
in most cases longer and more pointed in the same species.

These are again designated as—

Single, when only one is produced at the same point
(H, fig. 14).

Double, when two are together (I, fig. 14).

Triple, when in threes (G and J, fig. 14).

These double and triple buds are almost peculiar to the
stone fruits, and especially the peach, apricot, and necta-
rine.

The size, form, and prominence of leaf-buds vary in a
striking degree in different varieties of the same species,
and these peculiarities are found to be of considerable
service in identifying and describing sorts. Thus, the
buds of one variety will be long, pointed and compressed,
or lying close to the shoot. Others will be large, oval
and prominent, or standing boldly out from the shoot.
Others will be small, full, and round. For instance,
the wood-buds of the G-lout Morceau are short and coni-
cal, broad at the base, and taper suddenly to a very sharp
point inclined towards the shoot; they have also very

BUDS. 39

prominent shoulders ; that is, their base forms a prominent
projection on the shoot. The scales are also dark, with
light gray edges. In the Josephine de Malines pear the
buds are quite remarkable for their roundness, bhmtness,
and prominence. If shoots of the Bartlett and Seckel
pears, two well-known varieties, be compared, although
they present no decidedly obvious peculiarities, yet they
will be found very different. Those of the Seckel are much
broader at the base, more pointed, and lighter colored,
being a dark drab, whilst those of the Bartlett are red-
dish. These miscellaneous instances are chosen simply to
draw attention to these points, and to show the ordinary
modes of comparison. When we speak of leaf-buds, we
have reference only to the simple bud and not to the
large, pointed, spur-like productions frequently produced
towards the middle or lower part of young shoots that
have made a second growth ; that is, where growth has ceas-
ed for a while and the terminal bud has been formed, and
afterwards, in the same season, commenced anew, and
made a second growth.

8. Fruit-Buds. — In the early stages of their formation
and growth all buds are but leaf-buds. Thus, on a young
shoot of the cherry and the plum, for example, of one sea-
son's growth, the buds are all leaf-buds. The next spring
a part of these produce new shoots, and others are trans-
formed into fruit-buds that will bear fruit the following
season. The transformation is accomplished during the
second year of their existence, and it usually happens that
they are the smallest and least fully developed that are so
transformed ; the more vigorous pushing into branches.
In the peach, the apricot, etc., on which the fruit-buds
are produced in one year, the change from a leaf-bud to a
fruit-bud occurs towards the latter part of the season.
The primary cause of the transformation of leaf-buds
into fruit-buds is not satisfactorily known, although many
theories exist on the subject. Observation has taught us

40 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

many things in relation to it. It seems that all trees must
acquire a certain maturity, either natural or forced, in
order to produce blossoms or fruit. A tree that is fur-
nished with a rich, humid soil, containing an abundance
of watery nutriment, and left in all respects unrestrained
in its upward growth, may attain the age of ten or fifteen
years before it commences to form fruit-buds ; while in a
soil of a different quality, dry and less favorable to rapid
growth, or if constrained in its growth by being grafted
on some particular stock, or by some particular mode of
training, it may produce fruit in two or three years.

An apple-tree on a common stock, planted out in ordi-
nary orchard soil, does not usually bear until it is in most
cases seven years old, and often more from the bud ; while
the same variety grafted or budded on a Paradise apple
stock will produce in two or three years at most. We fre-
quently see one branch of a tree that has been accidentally
placed in a more horizontal position than the other parts,
or that has been tightly compressed with a bandage or
something of that sort, bear fruit abundantly, while the
erect, unconstrained portion of the tree gives no sign of
fruitfulness whatever. As a general thing we find that
where there is an abundant and constant supply of sap or
nutriment furnished to the roots of trees and conveyed by
them through the unrestrained channels which the large
cells and porous character of young wood afford, the
whole forces of the tree will be spent in the production
of new shoots; but that as trees grow older, the cells be-
come smaller, and the tree being also more branched the
free course of the sap is obstructed, and becomes in con-
sequence better elaborated, or in other words more ma-
ture^ and commences the production of fruit. Circum-
stances similar in all respects to these and answering ex-
actly the same purpose, can be produced by art at an
early age of the tree ; and this is one of the leading points
in the culture and management of garden trees, where

BUDS.

smallness of size and early fruitfulness are so highly desir-
able. This will come under consideration in another place.

Fruit-buds in most cases are distinguishable from wood-
buds by their rounder and fuller form; the scales that
cover them are broader and less numerous, and in the
spring they begin to swell and show signs of opening at
an earlier period. Like the wood-buds they are single,
double, or triple, according to the number found together.
They are single in pears, apples, and other trees of that
class. Single, double, and triple, variously, on the stone
fruits, gooseberries, and currants.

Fruit-buds are also simple and compound. Simple, as
in the peach, apricot, and
almond, each bud of which
produces but one flower.
Compound, as in the plum,
cherry, apple, pear, etc.,
each bud of which pro-
duces two or more flowers.
Those of the plum produce
two or three, hence we
find plums usually borne
in pairs ; those of the cher-
ry four or five (fig. 21),
and of the apple and pear
six to eight ; and hence
we often find these fruits
borne in clusters. They
are also lateral or terminal, as they occupy the sides or
ends of the branches or spurs on which they are produced.
The ordinary position of the fruit-buds of different classes
of trees will be understood from the preceding descrip-
tions of fruit-branches.

Fig. 21.— FLOWER OF THE CHERRY,

SHOWING THE PRODUCT OF A

COMPOUND BUD.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

SECTION 5. — LEAVES.

1st. Structure and Functions of Leaves. — The leaves,
of all hardy fruit trees cultivated in our climate, are de-
ciduous— that is, they decay and fall in the autumn, and
are succeeded by others on the return of spring. The
offices they perform during the growing season are of

the highest importance
to the^life and health of
the tree, and deserve
the most attentive con-
sideration.

A leaf (fig. 22) is com-
^ posed of two principal
parts, the leaf -stalk, or
petiole (A), which con-
nects it with the tree or
branch, on which it is
borne, and the expanded
part (B,C,D,E), called
the blade. The base is
the end ( C), attached to
the stalk, and the apex,
or point (D), the op-
posite one. The length
Fig. 22.-A LEAP OF THE PEAK. « the distanoe^from the

A, the petiole, or leaf stalk; J5, C. D, E, the base to the POlnt ( 6 to
blade ; C', the base ; Z>, the point ; Line E, B, ./)), and the Width, a line

cutting the length at
right angles, and extending from margin to margin (E

The leaf-stalk and its branches, forming the nerves or
veins of the blade, are composed of woody vessels, similar
to the woody parts of the tree or branch that bears it, in-
side of which is a pith, similar to the pith of the tree ; the
leaf is thus connected with the pith and wood of the

LEAVES. 43

shoot, and consequently with the ascending sap, as we
may readily see, by making a vertical cut through the leaf
stalk and shoot. The spaces between the veins of the
leaf are filled up with a cellular substance similar to tho
pith, called parenchyma, and the whole is covered with
a thin skin, epidermis. The cellular substance of the
leaf is connected with the inner bark, and consequently
with the descending sap, or cambium, that forms the new
layers of wood. Both surfaces of the leaf are furnished
with small pores, through which exhalation and absorp-
tion are carried on ; these are most abundant on the lower
surface.

This property of the leaves to receive and give out air
and moisture through the pores on their surface, has
caused them to be likened to the lungs of animals, and
this comparison is, to some extent, correct ; for we know
that, without leaves, or organs performing their offices,
trees do not grow ; and, in proportion to the natural
and healthy action of the leaves, do we find the vigor and
growth of the tree.

To prove that leaves have the power, in a greater or
less degree, to absorb fluids, we have but to apply water
to the drooping foliage of a plant suffering from drouth,
and see how quickly it becomes refreshed. The dews of a
single night, we know, too, will revive plants that the heat
and drouth of the previous day had prostrated ; and
even if we put a flagging plant in a damp atmosphere, it
recovers. The leaves of a bouquet can be kept fresh for a
long time by sprinkling them with water.

That plants exhale moisture and gases, cannot be doubt-
ed. It is this very exhaling process that causes plants
to wilt under a hot sun, or in a dry atmosphere. Plants
that are transplanted with their foliage on, as annuals are
in the spring or summer, will wilt, and even die, if ex-
posed to the air and sun ; but if transplanted in a moist
day, or covered, so that evaporation cannot take place,

44 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

the plant does not appear to feel the removal. So with
cuttings of many plants thus propagated ; if placed in
the earth with a certain amount of foliage on, and left
uncovered, they will immediately die ; but when we place
a bell-glass or a hand-glass over them, to prevent evapo-
ration, they remain as fresh as though they had roots
supplying them with moisture from the soil. It is on this
account that transplanted trees so often die, when the
branches and shoots are not in proportion to the roots.
In transplanting, a portion of the roots is destroyed,
and all are more or less deranged, so that their functions
are feebly performed for some time after planting. If all
the branches and shoots are left on, they will, as usual,
produce leaves ; but the absorption at the roots being so
much less than the exhalation of the leaves, the juices
contained in the tree, previously laid up, soon become ex-
hausted, the leaves droop and wither, and the whole fabric
perishes. In budding, too, if the whole leaf were left attach-
ed to the bud, the evaporation would be so great as to kill
the bud ; hence we remove all but a portion of the stalk.
A tree can neither mature its wood nor its fruit without
the full and healthy exercise of the leaves. If, in the
growing season, a tree is deprived of its foliage by blight,
insects, etc., we see that growth is entirely suspended for
a time, until new leaves are developed ; and if the leaves
be removed from a tree bearing fruit, we see the fruit
shrivel and dry up, or ripen prematurely, and become
worthless. These facts, and many others that might be
cited, show the intimate connection existing between the
leaves and the other organs of trees, and the influence
they have on their growth and productiveness. It is be-
lieved that the opening of the leaf buds in spring induces
the formation of new roots ; this is doubtful, as new roots
may be seen forming at times when there are no leaves
on the tree, and apparently no growth whatever going on
in the buds. But it is well known that they will soon cease

LEAVES. 45

to grow if leaves do not make their appearance. We
observe in the case of trees, the tops of which have been
so much injured by drying and exposure, that scarcely a
sound bud is left to grow ; in this case the roots, although
in perfect order, remain nearly dormant until new shoots
and leaves are produced, and in proportion as the leaves
increase, so do the roots. The fact of the absorption and
exhalation by leaves of certain fluids, has, to a very con-
siderable extent, established the theory that the sap of
trees is taken up from the roots, through the cells or sap
vessels of the wood of the trunk and branches, in a crude
state, and passes into the leaves ; that in their tissue, spread
out under the sun's rays, it receives certain modifications.
Carbonic acid, which lias been taken in a state of solution
from the soil, and by the leaves from the atmosphere, is
decomposed, its oxygen is given off into the air, carbon
becomes fixed, and thus the component parts of the tree,
the material of the cells, starch, sugar, gum, etc., are
formed. After passing through this purifying or concen-
trating process, the sap acquires a more solid consistence,
and is called cambium ; so prepared, it returns down-
wards through the nerves or vessels of the leaf to the base
of the leaf stalk, and then between the wood and bark of
the stem, forming new layers on its passage. Such is, at
present, the most popular theory of the functions of the
leaves, and the ascent, assimilation, and descent of the
sap. Some distinguished writers on the subject reject
this theory, alleging that " there is no such thing as crude
sap ; that as soon as it enters the roots it becomes assimi-
lated, and fit for the production of new cells, and that it
passes upwards, forming new wood or cells by a chemical
process."* Observation, however, has clearly established
that, in the leaves of healthy trees, chemical processes,
depending on light and heat, and absolutely essential to

* Schleiden's Principles of Botany.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

the well-being of the tree, are continually going on ; for
trees shut out from the light always make a feeble growth,
and have a blanched and sickly hue, compared with the
same species in the free air, and exposed to the rays of the
sun. If one side or portion of a tree is shaded or deprived
of its full share of light, it ceases to grow in its natural
way, and the shoots are lean, slender, and imperfect.
2d. Different Forms and Characters of Leaves. — The

Figs. 23 to 27. — FORMS or LEAVES.
23, oval ; 24, oblong ; 25, lanceolate ; 26, ovate ; 27, obovate.

different sizes and forms of the leaves of fruit trees, the
divisions of their edges, the absence or presence of glands,
the smoothness or roughness of their surfaces, are all,
more or less, serviceable in describing and identifying
varieties.

The terms designating forms are seldom mathemati-

LEAVES.

cally correct, but merely made by comparison ; for in-
stance—

Oval (fig. 23), when about twice as long as broad, and
nearly of equal width at both ends.

Oblong (fig. 24), three times, or more, longer than
broad, and differing but little in width in any part.

Lance Shaped, or lanceolate, (fig. 25), when much long-
er than broad, and tapering gradually to a sharp point.

Fig. 30. Fig. 29. Fig. 28

Fig. 28, a leaf, folded, reflexed, and finely serrated, or toothed ; Fig. 29, coarsely
serrated ; Fig. 30, crenate or scolloped.

Ovate (fig. 26), when twice as long as broad, tapering
to the apex, and widest towards the base.

Obovate (fig. 27), the reverse of ovate, the greatest di-
ameter being in the upper part.

. Round) roundish, approaching a circular form, like
fig. 22.

The apex or point is often a distinguishing feature ; some
leaves terminate suddenly in a sharp point, others are
drawn out to a long, sharp point, peaked, whilst others are
.nearly round. Leaves differ much, too, in the form of the

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

some are rounded, some sharp, and some heart-
shaped.

The divisions of the edges are serrated, or toothed, when
the edges are cut into sharp teeth, directed towards the
point of the leaf '; finely (fig. 28) or coarsely (fig. 29) ser-
rate, as these teeth are fine or coarse ; doubly serrate,
when the principal division, or tooth, is subdivided.

Crenate, or Scolloped (fig. 30), when the divisions are
rounded, instead of being sharp, like teeth.

Lobed, when deeply cut, and the penetrating angle

large, as in the cur-
rant, gooseberry,
grape, etc. (Fig. 31.)

flat, when the
surface is even (fig.
22).

folded, when the
edges are turned
inward (fig. 28).

Jieflexed, when
the apex, or point,
turns backwards,
giving the leaf, more
or less, the form of
a ring (fig. 28).

Waved, wrinkled.

Fig. 31.— LEAF OF THE CURRANT. LOBED.

smooth, rough, etc.,
are terms well enough understood, used in describing leaves.

The leaf-stalk lias often striking peculiarities in certain
varieties, such as unusually long, stout, short, or slender.
There are sometimes glands on the leaf-stalk, close to the
base, and, in certain cases, on the leaf itself, that are
chiefly taken notice of in identifying varieties of the peach
and nectarine ; these differ in shape, too, being globular
(as in fig. 32), reniform, or kidney-shaped (fig. 33) ; these

FLOWERS.

little glands are supposed to be, and no doubt are, organs

of secretion.

These are all in-
teresting items in the
study of the beautiful
and almost endless va-
riety of forms which
the different classes of
fruit trees, and even
different varieties of
the same class, exhibit

Fig. 32. Fig. 33.

Fig. 32, a leaf of the peach, with globular

glands ; Fig. 33, the same, with reuiform, or

kidney-shaped glands.

in their foliage.

SECTION 6. — FLOWERS.

1st. Different Parts of Flowers. — Flowers are the
principal reproductive organs of trees, and consist of floral
envelopes, the calyx and corolla / and of sexual organs,
stamens, and pistils. Fig. 34, which represents a flower

Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36.

Figs. 34 to 36. — DIFFERENT PARTS OF A. FLOWER.

Fig. 34, flower of the peach cut open longitudinally, A, the calyx ; .B, the petals ;

C, stamens; Z>, pistil. Fig. 35, a stamen, A, filament, or stalk: -B, anther.

Fig. 36, the pistil, A, ovary ; J?, style ; C, stigma ; the ovary is cut open to show

the ovule, D.

of the peach cut open lengthwise, shows the different
parts and their position.

The Calyx (A, fig. 34,) is the outer covering, and is
usually green, like the leaves. Its parts are called sepals.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

These are either distinct or more or less united by their

edges. The united portion is called the calyx-tube, and

the free points the segments.

The corolla (B, fig. 34,) is within the calyx, and is the

colored, showy part of the flower ; its divisions are called

petals.

Stamens (C, fig. 34), immediately within the petals, are
the male organs of plants. The
delicate, thread-like filament (A,
fig. 35), supports, on its extremity,
the anther (B, fig. 35). This
contains a powdery substance, the
pollen, which is liberated when
the anther is mature.

The pistil (D, fig. 34 and fig.
36,) is the female organ, and stands
in the center of the flower. It
consists of the ovary, at its base
(A, fig. 36), which contains the
ovules or rudiments of seeds.
The style (B, fig. 36) is the
elongated portion, and the stigma
(C, fig. 36,) is the portion that
receives the fertilizing powder
(pollen) from the anthers. The
stigma is usually rounded like a
knob, but frequently it is incon-
spicuous.

Flowers may be deficient in any

of these organs except the anthers, ovary, and stigma.

These are indispensable to fructification, and must be

present in some form or other, or the flowers will be

barren.

2d. Sexual Distinctions. — The fact that the two sexes,

or sexual organs, the stamens, and pistils, are, in certain

species, united on the same flower, and in others on dif;

Fig. 37. — FLOWERS OF THE
FILBERT.

FLOWERS. 51

ferent flowers, and even on different trees, has created the
necessity for the following distinctions :

Trees or plants are called hermaphrodite (as in fig. 34),
when both stamens and pistils are present on the same
flower. Nearly all our cultivated fruits are of this class.
Monoecious, when the male and female flowers are borne
on the same tree, as in the filbert flower (fig. 37, A, the
male, and B, the female flowers).

Dioecious, when the male flowers are on one plant, and
the female on another. A familiar in-
stance, among cultivated plants, is the
hop. The strawberry is not truly dire-
cious, but in many varieties we find the
stamens or male organs so incompletely
developed (fig. 38), that they are of no
service in fructifying the flowers. Such
varieties are termed pistillate, and we
OF THE STRAWBERRY. piant near them varieties with an abund-
ance of these organs, strongly developed, as in fig. 39.

3d. Impregnation. — The process of impregnation is
effected in this way : When the flowers first open, the
pollen granules are contained within the
anther. In a short time, after the flow-
er opens, the anther bursts, usually by
a longitudinal slit, and sometimes by
other kinds of opening, and the pollen
is let fall upon the stigma, or is carried
to it by means of the insects that fre- _. __

J F12T.39.— HERMAPHRO-

quent the flowers in search of pollen DITE FLOWER OF THE
and honey. The stigma is furnished
with a glutinous, or sticky secretion, to which the pollen
adheres ; there it prolongs a minute tube, which penetrates
through the style of the pistil to the ovary, where it reaches
the ovule, and impregnation takes place ; new cells are
formed within the ovule, which results in the production
of an embryo plant.

52 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

This impregnation is sometimes, from certain causes,
only partially effected in the cases of fruit where the ovary,
or seed vessel, is composed of several cells, as in the apple,
pear, etc., and hence the fruit takes an imperfect, one-sided
development from the beginning.

The difficulty that appears to arise in the way of the
impregnation of the stigma of one flower by the pollen
of another, distantly situated, either on the same plant, as
in monoecious trees, or on different plants, as in the dio3-
cious ones, is wonderfully obviated by the provision that
nature has made for its transmission — not only by the at-
mosphere, but by insects, that pass from one flower to an-
other, feeding on their honeyed secretions ; the pollen
adheres to the bodies of the insects, and they carry it from
one flower to another,

All natural flowers, of the same species, present the
same number of petals in their flowers ; but occasionally
the stamens are converted into petals, and thus, what are
called double flowers, are produced. Among fruit trees
we have double-flowering apples, plums, peaches, and
cherries. These seldom produce fruit ; when perfectly
double, never. Many of our double flowers, roses, peo-
nies, etc., have been obtained by this transformation
of the stamens into petals. It is supposed to be caused
by an excessively high cultivation given to the plants
that produce the seeds from which these double varieties
spring.

4. Period of Blossoming. — In treating of fruit-buds,
allusion has been made to the causes which, according to
observation and experience, promote fruitfulness. These
are chiefly a slow or moderate growth, and a brandling
or spreading, constrained form, instead of an upright one.
Some species of trees bloom at a much earlier age than
others. Thus the peach, the apricot, and the cherry, will
bloom in nearly one-fourth less time from the bud, all
things being equal, than the pear. Some species bloom

FLOWERS. 53

at an earlier period of the season than others ; the apricot
and the peach bloom very early, and this is the chief rea-
son why the crop is so often destroyed in localities subject
to late spring frosts. Among fruits even of the same spe-
cies there is much diiference in the period of blooming —
one variety of apple being nearly two weeks later than
another. This, in some sections, is an important quality,
where every day that the blossom is retarded renders the
crop surer, from its being more likely to escape frost.
These differences are caused by various circumstances.

1st. The Climate. — The period of blossoming of the
same species varies much in different localities. Rochester
is at least a week earlier than Buffalo, although the dis-
tance is less that one hundred miles ; and it is nearly two
weeks earlier than Toronto, which is still nearer. The
large bodies of ice in the lakes, at both Buffalo and Toronto,
have, no doubt, a considerable effect in retarding the
blossoming period.

2d. The Season and Position. — In the same locality, one
season is frequently a week earlier than others, and trees
on the south side of a wall or building will expand their
blossoms several days before the same variety in the open
ground, only a few rods distant, and ten days to a fort-
night before those on a north wall.

3d. The Soil. — On warm, and light soils, the roots of
trees are excited into activity much sooner than in cold,
damp, and heavy soils, and the blossoming period is earlier
in consequence.

The Different Characters of Flowers. — Flowers vary
in size, form, color, and other qualities, even in the same
species. In the peach, these distinctions are so obvious,
that one of the principal classifications of pomologists is
founded on them. Thus there are varieties with large
showy flowers (fig. 40), as the Serrate Early York, and
small (fig 41), as Large Early York, Crawford^ Early,
etc. The color also presents variations, some being

54 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

deep, others pale rose, and some almost white; two
or three varieties of the peach have flowers wholly
white, as the Snow Peach, for instance. In all the other
fruits, as in apples, pears, plums, cherries, etc., the flowers

vary but slightly in form
an<i color, and the differ-
ences are only taken note of
in very full and minute
scientific descriptions. A

i" 40 Fio-%1 ^ew cases' nowever> are well

Fig. 40, large flower of the peach i Fig. marked, as the Jargonelle
41, small flower of the peach. pear, the flowers of which
are nearly twice as large as those of most other pears.

In connection with the flowers, it may be proper to ex-
plain the important process of

Hybridization. — This is performed by fertilizing the
pistil of one species or variety, with pollen from the
stamens of another. The seeds produced by the flower so
impregnated will produce a cross, or hybrid, between the
two parents. This process is now well understood, and is
carried 011 to a wonderful extent, especially in the pro-
duction of new flowers. Comparatively few of our popu-
lar fruits have been produced in this way. A few good
sorts have been produced by the late Mr. Knight, a distin-
guished English experimentalist, who effected much in his
time towards establishing many difficult and disputed
points in vegetable physiology. Nearly all the native
fruits of this country are .accidental hybrids, or seedlings.
A vast deal may be done to improve, in this way, all our
fruits. The size, hardiness, and productiveness of one
variety may be combined with the delicacy of texture and
flavor of another, and endless variations and improvements
may be effected. To obtain a true hybrid, certain precau-
tions are necessary. The two subjects selected must flower
at the same time. The stamens must be carefully removed
from the one intended for the mother, without injury to

FLOWERS. 55

the stigma. It must also be guarded from accidental im-
pregnation by other varieties, and the pollen from the
selected male be applied at the proper moment — that is,
when it bursts from the anther. Hybridization is only
possible between species closely related ; for, although there
is a relation between the apple and the pear, and between
the gooseberry and the currant, they will not hybridize ;
but different varieties of the apple will hybridize with
each other, and so with all the rest.

It has been regarded as impracticable to hybridize the
native with the foreign grape, but several parties claim to
have at length succeeded. The varieties thus produced
will be found in the descriptive list of grapes.

Several parties have, from time to time, claimed to have
succeeded in crossing the Monthly Alpine Strawberry with
some of the large fruited sorts, but no instance of this
kind has yet come to our knowledge, properly authen-
ticated. It very often happens that the process of arti-
ficial impregnation fails, and a pure seedling of one of the
parents, instead of a hybrid, is the result.

The prospects now are that hybridization, better under-
stood than formerly, will yield important results in the
amelioration of fruits.

[Since writing the foregoing, I understand that Colonel
Wilder has really succeeded in producing hybrids between
the Alpine and Hautboy species and the large strawber-
ries, a march of great importance.]

Blossoming in Alternate Years. — Many varieties of
apples, pears, etc., fruits that take the whole season to
mature, produce flowers in alternate years only, with great
regularity. The reason is supposed to be this : The fruit,
during the bearing year, attracts a large quantity of the
ascending sap of the tree in the same way as the leaves
do; but instead of returning it to the tree, it is appropri-
ated by the fruit to its own growth. The consequence is,
the buds that would have blossomed the following year, if

56 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

they had received their due share of nutriment, fail in
attaining the proper condition, and produce only rosettes
of leaves. During the unfruitful season, immense quan-
tities of fruit-buds are again brought forward, and the
year following, the tree is overloaded ; so it proceeds in
regular alternation.

This is never experienced in trees regularly pruned, and
may be remedied by thinning out the crop in bearing
years, leaving on but a reasonable amount, that will not
exhaust the tree. The bearing years have been complete-
ly reversed by removing the blossom-buds, or fruits, on
the bearing year.

SECTION 7. — THE FRUIT.

1st. Character of the Fruit. — As soon as the ovules are
impregnated, the ovary begins to swell ; the petals,stamens,
and other parts of the flower fall off, and we then say the
fruit is "set" As a fruit-bud is but a transformed leaf-bud,
a fruit occupies the same relative connection with the tree
as a branch ; it attracts food from the stem and the atmos-
phere in the same manner, and performs all the same func-
tions, except that it does not, like the leaf, return anything
to the tree, but appropriates all to its own use ; and this
is the reason, as we have before remarked, that trees hav-
ing borne a heavy crop of fruit one season, are less fruitful
the next — this is the case only with fruits, as the apple
and pear, that require nearly the whole season to mature
them. Cherries and other fruits, that mature in a shorter
period, and that draw more lightly on the juices of the
tree, do not produce this exhaustion, and consequently
bear year after year uninterruptedly.

2d. Classification. — In some fruits, as the apple, for in-
stance, the fruit appears to be formed below, or at the base
of the calyx ; structurally, it is properly regarded as an
adhesion of the greater part of the calyx to the ovary ;

THE FRUIT. 57

the segments, or points of the calyx are still visible in the
mature fruit, and often serve, to some extent, by their
size and other peculiarities, as being spread out, or closed
together in a point, to identify varieties. In other species,
as the plum and cherry, the fruit is formed within the
calyx, or above it. Fruits of the former character, form-
ing below the calyx, and including it in their structure,
are classed as inferior — the apple, pear, quince, gooseberry,
and currant, are all inferior, having the calyx adhering.

Those formed within the calyx, and free from it, are
called superior • such are the peach, plum, apricot, nec-
tarine, cherry, raspberry, strawberry, and grape.

The more natural, popular, and useful classification of
fruits is that by which they are divided into

Pomes, or Kernel Fruits, as the apple, pear, quince,
medlar, etc. In speaking of these, we call the enlarged
accessory parts iheflesh, and the dry, bony, seed capsules,
the core.

Drupes, or Stone Fruits, are those which have a peri-
carp of two kinds ; the outer part soft and pulpy, \\\Q flesh,
and the inner one hard and bony, the pit, or stone, which
encloses the seed in a shell, like a nut ; as the peach, plum,
apricot, cherry, etc.

JJerries. — These have soft, pulpy flesh, containing seeds ;
as the gooseberry, currant, and grape.

Compound Berries, like the raspberry, and blackberry,
are made up of minute separate fruits, each like a stone
fruit, on a very small scale. In the strawberry, the fruits
proper are the seed-like ripened ovaries, which are more
or less imbedded in a large, fleshy receptacle, which is an
enlargement of the end of the flower-stalk.

Nuts, as tine filbert, chestnut, etc., are fruits with a hard,
bony covering, which are often contained in husks, or
cups, that, when ripe, open and let the fruit drop.

The outlines, or forms of fruits, and their colors, exhibit
great variations, even in the same species. Every portion
3*

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Fig. 42. — VERTICAL SECTION OF AN
APPLE, SHOWING ITS DIFFERENT PARTS.

A, the base ; B. the eye ; (7, the flesh ; D,
the seed ; E, the core ; A, stem ; B, calyx.

of the fruit, as the skin, flesh ( C, fig. 42), core (E, fig. 42),
seeds (D), or stones, stems (A), and in kernel fruits, the
calyx (B), has, in some cases, marked peculiarities, and in
others, they are more minute and scarcely perceptible ; but

yet, in a strictly scientific
study of pomology, they
are of more or less service.
It would be foreign to the
purposes of this work to
notice these points in de-
tail ; all that is deemed
necessary, useful, or ap-
propriate, is to point out
well-defined and practi-
cal distinctions, and the
terms ordinarily made
use of in popular de-
scriptions.
3d. Different Parts of the Fruit:
The Base (A) is the end in which the stem is inserted.
The Eye (B) is the opposite end, in the apple, pear,
etc., that have an adhering calyx.

The Neck, in pears, the contracted part near the stalk,
as seen in fig. 50.

The Point is the end opposite the stem in stone fruits,
berries, etc., that have no calyx, and consequently no
eye.

The Length is the distance from stem to point, or eye,
A to B, fig. 42.

The Width, a line cutting the fruit across, or at right
angles with the length.

The Basin, the depression around the eye, or calyx, in
kernel fruit, B, fig. 42.

The Cavity, the depression around the stem.
The Suture, in stone fruits, the furrow-like depression
running from the base to the point.

THE FRUIT. 59

4th. Different properties of fruits :

Besides the principal divisions which have been alluded
to, fruits are considered in regard to their size, color, form,
texture, flavor, and season of ripening.

1st. The Size. — Besides the natural difference in size
that exists among different varieties of the same species,
as, for instance, between the Bartlett and Seckel Pears, or
the Full Pippin and Lady Apples, there are great dif-
ferences between the same varieties, owing chiefly to the
following circumstances: Soil. — We find that, in new
and fresh soils, the nutritive properties of which have not
been impaired by cultivation, as in the virgin soils of the
West, fruit of the same variety attains nearly double the
size that it does in older parts of the country, where the
soil has long been under cultivation ; and that in the same
orchard, the tree growing in a deep, alluvial soil, will give
fruit much larger than the one on a hard, gravelly knoll.
Culture. — This has an important influence on the size of
fruits. If an orchard has been for several years neglected,
and the ground about the trees become covered with grass
and weeds, the fruit is small ; and if the same orchard be
plowed up, some manure turned in around the roots,
and the ground be kept loose and clean by tillage, the
fruit will double in size in a single season. Seasons. — In
a dry season, when the supply of moisture at the roots
and in the atmosphere is very limited, fruits are invari-
ably smaller than in seasons of an opposite character.
Number of fruits on the tree. — This affects the size of the
fruit to a great extent in all seasons, soils, and climates,
and under all grades of culture.

It is perfectly obvious, that the greater the number of
fruits a tree bears, the smaller they will be ; for, as they
derive their sustenance from the tree, a large number
cannot be so well supplied as a smaller number. We
cannot go into an orchard where there are many varieties
without seeing an illustration of this. Here is a prolific

60 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

variety, loaded in every part ; the fruits are small, cer-
tainly not over medium size. There is a moderate bearer;
its fruits are thinly and evenly distributed over the tree ;
its fruits are, consequently, large. So in the case of fruits
that have been thinned; that is, a certain portion removed
while young, either by accidental circumstances, or by
design ; every specimen is twice as large, as if the whole
crop had been allowed to mature. The English goose-
berry growers, in preparing their prize specimens, leave
but a few on each bush — not over a twentieth, or perhaps
a fiftieth part of the entire crop. So in peaches, grapes,
etc., grown carefully in houses. Where the size and
beauty of the fruit, and the health and vigor of the trees
are kept in view, a large portion of the crops, from one-
half to two-thirds, is thinned out before maturity. Age
of the trees. — This influences the size of fruits to a great
extent ; we see fruit so large on young trees, as to be
entirely out of character. As trees grow older, the vigor
decreases, and the number of fruits increase, and they are
consequently diminished in size. The kind of stock has a
tendency to modify the size ; thus we find many pears
much larger on the quince stock than on the pear, and
many apples larger on the Paradise than on the common
apple stock. The reason of this is, no doubt, that on the
quince and Paradise the juices of the tree are better pre-
pared, richer, and better suited to the growth of the fruit.
In the common pear and apple stocks, the sap is taken up
in greater quantities, is watery, and better adapted to
form wood than fruit.

CLASSIFICATION OP SIZE.

The terms qualifying the sizes of fruits are always given
comparatively, in regard to the two extremes, the largest
and the smallest of the species ; for instance — in apples,
we may consider the Gloria Mundi and Twenty Ounce as
extremely large, and the Lady Apple as extremely small.

THE FRUIT. 61

The terms used, therefore, are such as to represent the
various grades between the two extremes. These are

Very large, as the G-loria Mundi Apple, Duchesse
(TAngouleme Pear, Crawford's Early Peach, Yellow Egg
Plum, and Napoleon Bigarreau Cherry.

Large, as the Baldwin Apple, Bartlett Pear, Red Cheek
Melocoton Peach, "Washington Plum, and Black Eagle
Cherry.

Medium, as the Hambo Apple, White Doyenne Pear,
Imperial Gage Plum, and the American Amber Cherry.

Small, as the Early Strawberry Apple, Dearborn's Seed-
ling Pear, Green Gage Plum, and Baumarfs May Cherry.

Very Small, as the Amire Johannet Pear, Lady Apple,
Winter Damson Plum, and the Indulle (Early May)
Cherry.

The distance between some of these grades, as between
medium and large, etc., is so short, that they are frequent-
ly confounded ; still, they give a notion of comparative
size that answers all practical purposes. It would, per-
haps, have been more accurate, and, at the same time,
more satisfactory to persons entirely unacquainted with
fruits, to have given the comparative measurement of
these different grades in inches and parts ; but the varie-
ties quoted as examples are common, and very generally
known.

2d. Form. — It is exceedingly difficult, even impossible,
to find any single term that will give a mathematically
accurate notion of the forms of fruits ; for, although we
call an apple round or conical, it may not be, strictly
speaking, either ; very likely it partakes, to some extent,
of both forms. But that is no reason why we should desig-
nate it conical round : we simply call it round, or round-
ish, if nearer round than any other form ; and if it in-
clines slightly to the conical, we cannot in any other way
so well convey the knowledge of that fact as by simply
saying so.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

In the apple, the round form prevails, and in the pear,
the pyramidal; hence, it is necessary to apply a different
class of descriptive terms to each.

FORMS OF APPLES.

Round or Roundish (fig. 43). — When the outline is
round, or nearly so, the length being about equal to the
breadth.

Flat (fig. 46). — When the ends are compressed, and
the width considerably greater than the length.

Figs. 43 to 48. — FORMS OF APPLES.
43, round ; 44, conical ; 45, ovate ; 46, flat; 47, oblong ; 48, ribbed.

Conical (fig. 44). — In the form of a cone, tapering
from the base to the eye.

Ovate, or egg-shaped (fig. 45).

Oblong (fig. 47). — When the length is considerably
greater than the width, and the width about equal at both
ends, not tapering as in the conical.

In addition to these forms and their various modifica-
tions, some varieties are

Angular, having projecting angles on the sides.

One-sided, having one side larger than the other.

THE FRUIT.

ltibbed(48), when the surface presents a series of ridges
and furrows, running from eye to stem.

FORMS OF PEARS.

It has been remarked that the pyramidal form prevails
in pears ; but they taper from the eye to the stem, which
is just the reverse of the tapering form in apples. Their
forms are designated thus —

Pyriform. — When tapering from the eye to the base,
and the sides more or less hollowed (concave) (fig. 49).

Figs. 49 to 55. — FORMS OF PEAKS.

49, pyriform ; 50, long pyriform ; 51, obtuse pyriform ; 52, obovate ; 53, turbinate ;
54, oval ; 55, round.

Long Pyriform. — When long and narrow, and tapering
to a point at the stem (fig. 50).

Obtuse Pyriform. — When the small end is somewhat
flattened (fig. 51).

Obovate, or egg-shaped. — Nearly in form of an egg, the
small end being nearest the stem (fig. 52).

Turbinate, or top-shaped. — The sides somewhat round-
ed, and tapering to a point at the stem (fig. 53).

Oval. — Largest in the middle, tapering more or less to
each end (fig. 54).

64 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Round. — When the outline is nearly round (fig. 55).

FORMS OF PEACHES.

There is too much uniformity in the forms of peaches
to render the adoption of any set of terms descriptive of
them very serviceable. They are mostly round, occasion-
ally approaching to oblong and oval ; the sides are fre-
quently compressed, flattened, exhibiting a suture or fur-
row, running from the point to the base ; the width,
depth, etc., of this suture are, in many cases, peculiar, or
at least worthy of note.

FORMS OF PLUMS.

Plums are round, oval, or oblong, as the peach, and
marked, in some cases, by a similar flattening of the sides,
and by the suture.

FORMS OF CHERRIES.

Cherries are round or heart-shaped ; obtuse heart-
shaped, when too round to be fully heart-shaped ; and
pointed, when the point is more than ordinarily sharp, or
peaked. The suture is also taken note of, as in plums
and peaches.

Gooseberries and Grapes are always round or oval.
Currants, always round. Strawberries, round, conical or
oval, sometimes with a neck ; that is, the base is drawn
out at the stem in the form of a narrow neck. Raspber-
ries are conical, roundish or long.

3d. Color. — The color of fruits depends much on their
exposure to the sun's rays. We find that in orchard trees,
where the heads are dense, and a large portion of the fruit
shaded and shut out from the sun, there is a great differ-
ence in the color ; indeed, so great, frequently, as to make
their identity, from appearance, quite doubtful. Varieties

THE FRUIT. 65

that are naturally — when properly exposed to the sun —
of a bright red or a glowing crimson, remain green in the
shade. The climate, too, seems to have considerable ef-
fect on the color. As a general thing, we observe that
northern apples are clearer and brighter colored than
those of the South.

Dry soils and elevated situations produce more highly
colored fruit than damp and low valleys. The terms
used in describing colors are all simple, and well under-
stood.

4th. Flavor, in table fruits, is one of the most impor-
tant of qualities ; for, however large or fair a fruit may
be, if insipid or astringent to an unpleasant degree, or if
it possesses some other disagreeable quality, it is unfit for
the table. There are various kinds of flavor even among
varieties of the same species : in pears, particularly, it is
almost endless; the shades and degrees of sweet and acid,
and the various perfumes that mingle with these, are
almost infinite.

The same circumstances mentioned as favorable to high
and brilliant coloring, are also favorable to the production
of fine flavor. Light, heat, a dry soil, and moderate
growth, seem to be all essential to fine flavor. On trees
somewhat advanced in age, fruits are apt to be higher
flavored than on young trees that have just commenced
bearing, and in a dry than a wet season. The philosophy
of all this is, that in a damp soil or season, or in a shaded
situation, when trees are young, and growing rapidly, the
fruit receives more sap from the tree than can be properly
elaborated by the action of the sun and atmosphere on its
surface, and, consequently, the sugary principle is pro-
duced in small quantities — the juice is watery, sour, or
insipid, as the case may be.

The various terms by which flavor is designated, such
as sweet, acid, subacid, sprightly, perfumed, musky ^ spicy ,
etc., are all well understood.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

SECTION 8. — THE SEED.

The perfect seed contains the rudiment of a plant of
the same nature as that which produced it. This rudi-
ment of the new plant is called the embryo, and is found
in a more or less developed state in all seeds. In fig. 56
is given an enlarged view of an apple seed cut longitu-
dinally to show the embryo in place, and fig. 57 shows
the embryo of the same after germination, the lettering
referring to the same parts in both illustrations. It consists
of three parts — the cotyledons (a,
figs. 56 and 57), which are the first
pair of leaves, usually rudimentary ;
these are the parts that first make
their appearance, and are known as
seed leaves. The bases of these
cotyledons are united to the radicle,
(c), and between them is a bud (&),
called the plumule. The radicle
and plumule are very inconspicuous
in the seed (fig. 56), but as soon as
the seed is excited into germina-
tion by the heat and moisture of
the earth, the radicle elongates, one
end penetrates the soil, and roots
soon start from it, and the upper
portion ascends in an opposite direction, bearing the
plumule, and, in the apple, etc., the cotyledons to the sur-
face, where they find the necessary air and light. The
plumule, which is really a terminal bud, is soon lifted up
by the development of a section of stem, unfolds its leaves,
and exposing another bud, which in its turn repeats the
same process, and thus the growth of the tree goes for-
ward.

It has been remarked that a seed contains the rudiments
of a plant similar to that on which it is produced ; but

Fig. 56, apple seed divided:

Fig. 57, germinating seed.

a, cotyledons ; d>, plumule ;

c, radicle.

THE SEED. 67

this needs some explanation. In distinct species, this will
be true ; but the seeds of varieties that have been pro-
duced by culture and hybridizing, seldom, or never, repro-
duce exactly their like, hence the necessity for the various
artificial methods of multiplication, such as grafting, bud-
ding, layering, etc. It is to these operations that we are
indebted for the preservation of varieties that were origi-
nated, hundreds of years ago.

Germination. — Heat arid moisture, air, and the exclu-
sion of light, are all necessary to the healthy and perfect
germination of seeds. It may be well to consider, briefly,
the part which each of these has to perform.

1st. Moisture. — If seeds are sown in a time when
the ground is parched, they will show no signs of germi-
nation until it is, in some way or other, moistened. The
quantity of moisture necessary to a seed depends on the
nature of its covering, and its size. A small seed, with
a thin covering, will vegetate much sooner, and with less
moisture, than a large seed, with a hard, bony covering.
The moisture must, in the firs j place, soften the covering,
penetrate to the mealy part of the seed, and prepare it
for the chemical changes necessary to convert it into food
for the embryo plant. If apple or pear seeds be kept in
a dry, warm room all winter, they will not be likely to
vegetate the succeeding spring, but if sown, will probably
lie in the ground all summer, and possibly germinate the
spring following. If cherry seeds are kept dry for any
length of time, say two or three months, they will not
germinate the season following; and peaches and plums
have actually to be in the ground all winter to insure
their germination the succeeding spring. Seeds will ger-
minate much quicker when freshly gathered than after
they have dried, because heat, moisture, and air have
easier access to them, and act more quickly on them.
These facts, of which all are well aware, show the necessi-
ty for moisture, and the nature of its influence.

68 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

2d. Seat is the next most important element. Seeds
do not grow in winter. We sow our apple, pear, peach,
and plum seeds in November, but they show no signs of
germination until a change of season. When the warmth
of spring penetrates the soil, it reaches the seed, and, in
connection with the moisture already imbibed, induces
chemical changes, which excite the vital energies of the
germ, decompose the mealy part of the seed, and prepare
it for the temporary nutrition of the young plant.

3d. Air. — Although seeds may have heat and moisture
in the requisite proportions, still it has been proved, by
many experiments, that without air, germination cannot
take place.

Practical cultivators are aware that seeds planted too
deeply do not grow ; many kinds .will lie buried in the
ground for years without growing, and when turned up
near the surface, will germinate immediately. It is the
oxygen of the air that constitutes its importance ; it pro-
duces, by forming new combinations with the constituents
of the seed, that chemical process which converts the
starch into gum and sugar, as we observe in ordinary
cases of fermentation.

4th. Exclusion of Light. — The manner in which self-
sown seeds in the forest are covered with fallen and de-
caying foliage, plainly indicates that nature never intend-
ed the light to strike germinating seeds. A seed entirely
exposed would be at one time saturated with moisture,
and at another parched with drouth ; chemical changes
would be alternately promoted and checked, until the
vital principle would be destroyed, or so weakened as to
produce a feeble and worthless plant. The depth of the
covering should always be regulated by the size of the
seeds. Small and delicate seeds may be sown almost on
the surface, whilst large ones may be imbedded to the
depth of four or five inches. The small seed requires lit-
tle moisture, and has but a feeble force to penetrate an

SOILS. 69

earthy covering ; but the large requires much moisture,
and has force enough to push its way up.

CHAPTER II.

SOILS.
SECTION 1. — DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOIL.

Soils are usually designated by terms expressive of the
predominant material in their composition ; thus we hear
of sandy, loamy, gravelly, clayey, calcareous, or limy, and
alluvial soils.

A sandy soil is that in which sand is the principal in-
gredient. Such soil is usually quite defective. It is so
porous, that it parts almost instantaneously with moisture,
and plants in it suffer from drouth. All the soluble
parts of manures are also quickly washed out of it, and
hence it requires continual additions to produce even a
scanty growth. The great point in improving it is to
render it more retentive by the addition of clay, ashes,
etc.

A clayey soil is that in which clay predominates. It
may be considered the opposite of sandy, inasmuch as its
defects are, that it retains moisture too long, is too adhe-
sive ; in dry weather it becomes as hard as a burnt brick,
impervious to dews or light showers, and when thoroughly
saturated with wet, it is tough, and requires a long time
to dry. No fruit tree succeeds well in such a soil ; but it
is capable of being improved and fitted for many species,
and especially the plum and the pear. The obvious way
to improve it is, by incorporating with it sand, muck, or
leaf mould.

70 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

A gravelly soil is one made up in greater part of small
stones, pebbles, decomposed rock, etc. ; such soils, as a
general thing, are unfit for fruit trees, unless great labor
is incurred in trenching, deepening, and mixing with
clay, muck, etc., of opposite characters.

A loamy soil is one we hear a great deal about, and
may be understood in various ways. It may be considered
a mixture of equal parts of sandy, clayey, and vegetable
soil. It is neither so light as the sandy, on the one hand,
nor so tenacious as clay on the other ; and, as a general
thing, contains such elements, and is of such a texture, as
to render it eligible for all ordinary purposes of cultiva-
tion, and especially so for fruit trees. Loamy soils are
spoken of as sandy loams when sand forms a large ingre-
dient— say one-half of their composition ; gravelly, when
pretty largely mixed with small stones ; calcareous, when
lime is found in them.

Calcareous soils have a large amount of lime mixed
with the other ingredients of which they are composed.
All the lands in limestone districts are of this character,
and, as a general thing, are well adapted to fruit culture.

Peaty soil consists chiefly of vegetable mould from de-
cayed marsh plants, in low, wet places. It is unfit, in
itself, for fruit trees, but is valuable for improving both
light and heavy soils.

Alluvial soils nre made up of decomposed vegetable
substances, the sediment of rivers, and materials washed
down from neighboring hills ; the valleys of all our rivers
and streams are composed of this, and it is the richest
of all soils. Fruit trees in such soils make a rank,
vigorous growth, but they are not so hardy nor so fruit-
ful, nor is the fruit so high flavored as on soils with more
sand, clay, or gravel, and less vegetable mould.

In treating of the different classes of fruits, we shall
refer to the particular soils best adapted to them.

SOILS. 71

SECTION 2. — DIFFERENT MODES OF IMPROVING SOILS.

In regard to depth, soils vary materially, some being
not over eight or ten inches in depth of surface, others a
foot, while in deep alluvial valleys they are often two feet.
For orchard and garden purposes, a deep soil is quite
essential, to enable the roots to penetrate freely in search
of food, and to enable them to withstand the demands of
protracted drouths. Few soils in their ordinary condi-
tion of farm culture are, in this respect, suitable for trees.
Even where naturally deep and loamy, if the upper part
only (say to the depth of six inches, which is as deep as
most people plow) be in a friable condition, it cannot be
considered as in a proper state for the reception of trees,
for their roots cannot be confined to six inches of the sur-
face. Some means of loosening and deepening must be
resorted to, and what are they ?

1. SUBSOIL PLOWING.

This is the cheapest and best method, where a large
quantity of ground is to be prepared for extensive plant-
ing. The common plow goes first, and takes as deep a
furrow as practicable. The subsoiler follows in the same
furrow, and loosens, without turning up, the lower part
of the surface, and a part of the subsoil. Except in cases
where the subsoil is a very stiff clay, or a hard gravel,
and near the surface, the two plows can go to the depth
of eighteen or twenty inches. This is our mode of pre-
paring nursery grounds. If a single plowing in this way
does not accomplish the desired end, a second may be
given, going down still deeper.

We had a piece of soil, the surface of which was about
a foot deep, of black vegetable mould, with a slight ad-
mixture of sand, resting on a stiff clay subsoil, which
prevented the water from passing off. In this condition

72 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

we found it entirely unfit for trees ; we subsoil plowed it
six or eight inches deep, turning up the clay subsoil, and
mixing it with the surface ; we also drained it, and spread
over the surface the clay that came out of the drains, and
in this condition we find it producing the finest trees,
especially apples, pears, and plums. The soil is more
substantial, and the surface water passes off freely.

2. TRENCHING.

Iii gardens, too limited in extent to admit of plows, or
where it is desired to make the soil thoroughly and per-
manently deep, trenching is the means.

The spade is the implement used in this operation. A
trench, two feet wide, is opened on one side of the ground,
and the earth taken out of it is carried to the opposite side.
Another trench is opened, the surface spadeful being
thrown in the bottom of the first, and the next lower on the
top of that, and so on until it is opened the required depth,
which, for a good fruit garden, should be about two feet.
If the subsoil be poor and gravelly, it is better to loosen
it up thoroughly with a pick, and let it remain, than to
throw it out on the surface. When the whole plot is
trenched over in this way, the earth taken out of the first
trench will fill up the last one, and the work is done. If
the soil be poor, a layer of well-decomposed manure may
be added alternately with the layers of earth ; and if the
soil be too light and sandy, clay, ashes, etc., can be add-
ed ; and if too heavy, sand, lime, muck, peat, scrapings
of dead leaves from the woods, or any other material cal-
culated to render it porous and friable. If a garden is
thus trenched in the fall or winter, and then turned over
once in the spring, to effect a thorough mixture of all the
materials, it will be in suitable order for planting. This
is something like the way to prepare soil for a garden ;
and let no one say it is too troublesome or too expensive,

SOILS. To

for, in two years, the extra pleasure and profit it will yield
will pay for all. Nothing is so expensive nor so trouble-
some as an ill-prepared soil.

3. DRAINING.

There is a false notion very prevalent among people,
that where water does not lodge on the surface, of a soil,
it is " dry enough." However this may be in regard to
meadows or annual crops, it is quite erroneous when ap-
plied to orchards or fruit gardens. Stagnant moisture,
either in the surface or subsoil, is highly injurious — ruin-
ous to fruit trees. In such situations, we invariably find
them unthrifty and unfruitful, the bark mossy, and the
fruit imperfect and insipid. All the soils, then, not per-
fectly free from stagnant moisture, both above and below,
should be drained. In draining, it is, of course, neces-
sary to have a fall or outlet, for the water. Having se-
lected this, the next point is to open the drains. We
usually make them three feet deep, and wide enough to
give sufficient room to work — say three feet wide at top
narrowing gradually to six inches at the bottom, which
should be even, and sloping enough to the outlet of the
water to enable it to run. Draining plows are now used
advantageously, lessening very much the expense of
opening the drains. The plow is constructed something
like the subsoiler, and the horses are attached with a long
evener, so that one can walk on each side of the drain.

A sufficient number of men follow the plow to throw
out the earth with shovels as fast as it is loosened.

The two-inch pipe tile is the best for common drains.
For outlet drains, the size must be proportioned to the
number of small drains which discharge into it.

Those who have much draining to do, and need infor-
mation on tho subject, should procure a work upon the
subject.
4

74 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Where draining tiles are not to be bad conveniently,
small stones may be used. The bottom of the drain
should be filled with them to the depth of eight or ten
inches. In using these, the drains require to be at least
six inches deeper than for tiles, in order that a sufficient
quantity of stones can be used without coining too near
the surface. Some brush, or turf, with the grassy side
downwards, should be laid on the stones before filling in
the earth, to keep it from filling up the crevices.

Objections are sometimes made to draining for orchards
on the ground that the roots may get into the drains, and
fill them up. This difficulty is obviated by placing the
rows of trees at a proper distance from the drains.

CHAPTER III.

MANURES.
SECTION 1. — IMPORTANCE OF MANURES.

JSTo soil, whatever may be its original fertility, can sus-
tain a heavy and continued vegetation for many years
without becoming, to some extent, exhausted. Indeed,
there are few people so fortunate, except those who settle
upon new, uncultivated lands, as to procure a soil that
does not need manuring to fit it for the first planting with
trees. It is, then, a matter of importance for every man,
who has more or less land to cultivate, to inform himself
well on the subject of saving, preparing, and applying
manures. In this country, the only class of men, general-
ly speaking, who can be properly said to collect and
manage manures with system and care, are nurserymen
and market gardeners near our large towns. It is very

MANURES. 75

seldom that people generally give the matter a thought
until garden-making time comes around in the spring,
and then anything in the form of manure is carried into
the garden, and applied whether fit or unfit. This is not
the proper course.

• Every garden should have its manure heap, that, in the
fall or spring, when it comes to be applied, will cut like
paste. In that state only is it safe to apply it. All parts
of it are then decomposed thoroughly ; all seeds of
noxious plants are dead, and it is in a condition capable
of yielding at once, to the roots of growing plants, healthy
nutrition, that will produce a vigorous, firm, sound, and
fruitful growth ; and this is precisely what is wanted :
far better to have a tree starved and stunted, than forced
into a rank, plethoric growth, with crude, ill-prepared
manures.

SECTION 2. — PREPARATION OF MANURES.

The best gardeners pursue a system something like
this : A trench is prepared, two or three feet deep, and
large enough to hold what manure may be wanted. In
the bottom of this trench, a layer of muck, grassy turf,
ashes, anything and everything capable of being decom-
posed, is laid down, say a foot deep. On the top of this,
a thick layer of stable or barn-yard manure, two or three
feet deep, then another layer of muck, gypsum, etc. In
this way it remains until more manure has accumulated
around the stables ; it is then carried and deposited in
another layer, with a layer of the other materials on the
top. The manure should always be saturated with mois-
ture, and trodden down firmly to hasten its decay; and if
an occasional load of night soil could be mixed in with
it, all the better. The layer of muck and other substances
being always placed on the top of the last layer of
manure absorbs the evaporations of the heap, and hastens

70 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

the decay of all. When stable manure is thrown down
and left uncovered, a dense steam will be seen to rise
from it ; and this is the very essence of it escaping to be
lost ; and if it be thrown down in a heap dry, it will im-
mediately burn — that is, dry rot. Its enriching ingredi-
ents all pass off by evaporation, and there is nothing left
but its ashes, so to speak.

When the heat has accumulated for four or five
months, as described, the whole should be turned over,
completely mixed, and piled up in a compact, firmly
trodden mass, when it will undergo further decomposition,
and, in a short time, become like paste. Adjoining every
manure heap there should be an excavation, to receive its
liquid drainage, in order that it may be saved, and either
applied, in the growing season, in a liquid state, diluted
with water, or be thrown over the heap.

" Special manures " have been much talked of lately.
By the word " special," is meant a particular quantity,
of a particular mixture, for certain species, and even for
certain varieties of fruits. Nearly all the suggestions on
the subject are speculative, and unreliable. The subject
is an important one, but we want direct and careful ex-
periments. It is only when we know to a certainty what
material certain trees need most of, and in what degree it
abounds, or is wanting in our soil, that we can apply it
safely. The experience of farmers and gardeners, grain
and fruit growers, all over the world, affords undoubted
evidence of the enriching qualities of stable manure. On
all soils, and for all sorts of crops, it is an unfailing and
powerful fertilizer; and we make it -the base of all our
manure and compost heaps. By mixing with it the in-
gredients we have mentioned, we hasten its decay, save
its parts from waste, and, at the same time, combine with
it other substances that will not only enrich, but improve
the texture of soils, and increase the supply of the mineral
substances required by plants. Dr. Daubney, a distin-

MANURES. 77

guished writer on the character and improvement of
soils, etc, says : t; Fortunately, we are provided, in the
dung of animals, with a species of manure of which the
land can never be said to tire, for this simple reason — that
it contains within itself not one alone, b;it all the ingre-
dients which plants require for their nutrition, and that,
too, existing in the precise condition in which they are
most readily taken in and assimilated." But a good sub-
stitute for this article, where it cannot be obtained, is an
important point. Some time ago, we noticed in the re-
port of a discussion on manures in Boston,. that the Hon.
M. P. Wilder, one of the most distinguished horticultu-
rists in America, stated that he had found the following
compost equal to stable manure for gardening purposes
generally, and for fruit trees.

" One cord of meadow muck, having been exposed to
the action of the air and frost at least one year ; twelve
bushels leached ashes ; six bushels crushed bones. This
mixture cost him at the rate of $4.50 cents per cord.
Latterly, he added to this his stable manure, and about
an eighth of the whole bulk of fine refuse charcoal from
the depot of venders, which was delivered to him at $5
per cord ; and in this way he found it the best, as a gen-
eral manure, he had ever used. On fruit trees its effect
was remarkable.

" In the spring of 1847, he planted a square in the nur-
sery with imported trees from England, this compost hav-
ing been spread and plowed in. These tre.es were from
four to five feet in height, and although it is not usual
for trees to make a large growth the first year, they ac-
quired branches of three to four feet.

" In June last, which is very late to set out trees, he
prepared another square on rather poor land, and planted
trees just received from England upon it. The soil had
been thrown up to the frost the previous winter, and the
compost here was applied in the trenches, near the roots.

78 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Mr. Wilder exhibited two shoots which had grown from
those trees since they were set, in June. The shoots
were four feet in length, and the wood hard, and well
ripened."

In addition to all these sources for manure, it may be
added that fallen leaves, scrapings of streets, weeds,
wood chips, sawdust, the ashes of all primings of trees
and brush, soot, blood, animal flesh, soap-suds, and slops
from the kitchen, and, in fact, everything decomposable
may be used to increase the bulk of the manure heap,
taking care that CArerything likely to waste by evapora-
tion be covered at once with muck, charcoal, or some
material calculated to absorb the gases evolved by decom-
position. We very frequently see people, in the spring
of the year, when their garden is undergoing a purifying
and fitting up process, carry to the highway all the brush,
dry stems of plants, and all the wreck of the previous
season's work, there to make a bonfire to get it out of the
way, while at the same moment they complain sadly of
the lack of manure.

There was no such thing as a manure heap on the
premises.

SECTION 3. — MODES OF APPLYING MANURE.
Where an acre or several acres of around are to be

prepared for trees, the better way is to spead the manure
over the surface, and turn it in with the plow. When
it is scarce, and economy necessary, it may be applied
around the roots, by mixing with the earth at planting
time.

Quantity to be Applied. — This, of course, depends on
two things — the necessities of the soil, and the quality of
the manure. If the land be poor, an even covering of
two or three inches should be given ; if in tolerably good
condition, one inch will be sufficient. One inch of well-

MANURES. 79

decomposed animal manure will be equal to three inches
of a partially decayed compost.

SECTION 4. — LIQUID MANURE.

Manure, in a liquid state, has these advantages to recom-
mend it : It can be applied to trees and plants in a grow-
ing state without, in the least, disturbing the surface of
the soil, and it supplies, at the same time, both nutriment
and moisture. It can be applied to bearing trees, straw-
berries, etc., -in fruit, if defective in vigor, or suffering
from drouth, and yield an immediate sustenance, ^that
will enable them to produce much larger and finer fruit
than they could have done without it.

It may either be collected in a tank, kept on purpose
near the barns, or it may be made when wanted by dis-
solving manure in water. It may be much stronger for
trees, the roots of which are a considerable distance from
the surface, than for such plants as have their roots near
the surface. It is the only prompt and effectual stimu-
lant for trees on a poor soil, to enable them to perfect
their crop. We have frequently witnessed its astonishing
effects. It should be applied in the evening, and in such
quantity as to penetrate to the roots ; half a dozen water-
ings will be sufficient in most cases, but it is better to
apply it well diluted, and often, than a smaller quantity,
too strong. A dozen shovelfuls of animal manure will
make a barrel of liquid powerful enough for most pur-
poses ; and if pure liquid soakage of the manure heap or
urine of animals is used, at least one-half rain-water '
should be added. Soap-suds forms an excellent liquid
manure for all trees. The grape-vine is especially bene-
fited by liberal and frequent application.

80 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER IV.

THE DIFFERENT MODES OF PROPAGATING FRUIT TREES.

General Remarks. — The propagation of fruit trees may
be classed under two principal heads — the Natural,
which is by seeds ; and the Artificial, by the division of
the plants, as in cuttings, layers, suckers, buds, and grafts.

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS.

Seedling fruit trees are propagated either to obtain new
varieties, or stocks for budding or grafting. It is only
where the very rudest system of fruit culture is practised
— as, for instance, in newly-settled countries — that seed-
lings are planted out to bear, for the reason that, unless
in very rare instances, varieties worthy of cultivation do
not reproduce themselves from seed. The important dif-
ferences that exist between the seeds of different classes
of fruit trees render it necessary to treat of each sepa-
rately ; their management will therefore be given in detail,
in connection with the propagation of stocks.

There are some points, however, of general application,
that may be considered here with propriety. It scarcely
admits of a doubt, but that many of the difficulties met
with in fruit tree culture, as maladies of various sorts,
unfruitfulness, etc., are induced by a careless and indis-
criminating system of propagation.

The stock has a most important influence on the health,
T longevity, fruitfulness, and symmetry of the tree, and
should therefore be propagated nnd selected with due re-
gard to its soundness, vigor, and hardiness of constitution.

If it were possible, seeds, to grow stocks from, whether
of the apple, pear, peach, plum, or any other, should be
taken only from healthy, vigorous trees, and from perfect,

PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. 81

well-matured fruits. This is more especially important in
the case of the peach, which, in some sections, is affected
with a fatal malady, known as the " yellows."

In the case of the plum, too, care should be taken not
to grow stocks from the seeds of trees affected with that
well-known fungus disease, called " black-knot."

I have strong reasons for believing that stocks grown
from trees affected with this disease will soon fall a prey
to it. Indeed, I have seen it make its appearance among
seedlings during their first season's growth in the seed-
bed.

As this disease is now so prevalent, I would recommend
the total rejection of American seedlings unless grown
from seed positively known to be the product of sound
trees. It is safer to import stocks from Europe, where
the plum-tree is exempt from the black-knot.

In regard to other stocks, as the apple, pear, cherry,
etc., usually grown from seed saved promiscuously, the
greatest care should be taken to select and plant out, for
budding or grafting upon, only such as show unmistaka-
ble signs of health and vigor; all others should be dis-
carded. The strongest stocks come from the sound and
healthy seed, and it is a pretty safe rule to discard the
small ones.

A discriminating spirit is already becoming apparent
among the best classes of cultivators, and their example
will soon be felt. The selection of seeds for stocks is a
point of more than ordinary importance, and merits the
special attention of every man engaged, to whatever ex-
tent, in the propagation of fruit trees.

Production of New Varieties. — New varieties are pro-
duced from seeds that have been properly hybridized, as
described in the article on hybridization, or from seeds of
the best specimens of the best varieties.

Where it is desired to obtain seedlings of a particular
variety, free from any crossing with others, the flowers
4*

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

should be protected while in blossom, to guard .them
against foreign impregnation ; seeds should be saved only
from large, perfect, fine flavored specimens, and the seeds
themselves should be plump and mature. Sometimes a
good variety is obtained by selecting from beds of seed-
lings, such as possess marked evidences of improvement ;
vigorous, luxuriant growth, large, heavy foliage, promi-
nent buds, and smooth, thornless wood. These characters
indicate superiority, but do not always ensure superior
fruit. The stock is supposed to exert considerable influ-
ence on the seed ; and if this be the case, it would be well
to get such varieties as- we wish seeds from, on their own
roots, by layering, or grafting on roots in the ground, so
that the graft will, itself, strike root. Mr. Knight's mode,
of obtaining seedlings of the best varieties, was to prepare
stocks from some good sort that would strike from cuttings.
These stocks he planted in rich, warm soil, and grafted
with the kind he wanted the seeds from. The first season
after grafting he took them up, reduced the roots, and
planted again. In this way he had them bear fruit in two
years. He allowed only a couple of specimens to remain
on each tree, and these, consequently, were very large,
mature, and every way fine, and from these the seeds
were taken. Seedlings may be tested quickly, by bud-
ding or grafting them on bearing trees. We may fruit
apples and pears in this way in four or five years, whilst
ten or fifteen would be necessary on their own roots.

2. By Division of the Plants. — It h;is been remarked,
in the article on buds, that every bud is capable, under
favorable circumstances, of producing a new individual,
similar to that from which it is taken.

Hence it is, that out of the young annual wood of an
apple, pear, peach, or any other fruit tree, we frequently
make several hundreds. Every good, well-formed bud,
properly separated, and inserted under the bark of the in-
dividuals of the same, or a closely allied species, will, in

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 83

one ^rear from its insertion, or with one season's growth,
have become a new tree. It is by these means we are
enabled to disseminate new varieties with such wonderful
rapidity. If a young tree, of a new variety, will make half
a dozen shoots the first season, each bearing half a dozen
buds, we can, if we have stocks to bud on, be in possession
of thirty trees of that variety in two years from the time
we obtained one tree, and in another year we may have
four times that number. The production of a tree from
a bud, a graft, a layer, or a cutting, is but the same thing,
effected by different means. In all the cases, a part of the
parent plant, with one or more buds attached, is separated
from it. The cutting, sometimes composed of one bud, or
joint, and sometimes of several, we put directly in the
ground, where it forms roots. The graft is a cutting in-
serted, not in the ground, but in the wood of another
plant, to which it unites. The bud inserted under the bark
of another tree, and the one buried in the ground, differ
only in this, that one draws its support directly from the
soil, and the other indirectly, through the tree to which
it unites.

SECTION 1. — PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.

A cutting is a shoot, or part of a shoot, generally of one
season's growth. The length of the cutting varies from
a single eye, or joint, to a foot, according to the nature
of the species, or the circumstances under which it is to
be grown. The wood should be as stout and mature as
possible, and should be cut close and smooth to a bud at
both ends (fig. 58). In all cases, cuttings taken off close
to the old wood, with the base attached, as in fig. 59, are
more successful than when cut at several joints above ;
and in many cases, as in the quince, for example, an inch
or two of the old wood left attached to the base of the
cutting, as in fig. 60, render it still more certain of sue-

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

cess. The more buds we can get around the base of a
cutting, the better, other things being equal ; for these
buds, as soon as they become active, send down new
matter, from which the roots are emitted.

Cuttings of the grape are sometimes made of a single
eye (fig. 61), with an inch or so of wood above and below it.

The time to make cuttings is in the fall, as soon as the

Figs. 58 to 63. — CUTTINGS.

58, a cutting, all of young wood ; 59, a cutting, with a heel of old wood ; 60, a

cutting, with 2 or 3 eyes of old wood ; 61, a cutting of a single eye of the grape

vine ; 62, a long cutting of the grape ; line A, J5, surface of the ground.

wood is ripe, and through the early winter months. It
should not be deferred later than January. The soil for
cuttings is of the greatest importance to their success, for
if, on the one hand, it be cold, damp, and compact, they
will decay, and if too loose and sandy, they will dry up
for the want of sufficient moisture. A soil so mellow that
it cannot bake, and yet so compact as to retain humidity
enough to support the cuttings until new roots are formed,
seems to be absolutely necessary — such a soil as we may

PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. 85

suppose a good garden border to be composed of. Rooted
plants can endure extremes, but cuttings require the most
f.ivorable circumstances.

Time to plant. — The fall would be the better season
to plant all cuttings, if we could cover them so as to pre-
vent the frost from heaving them out. It is on account
of this difficulty that we plant, from necessity, in the
spring ; but spring planting must be done very early, that
vegetation may proceed gradually. If late planted, warm
weather comes on them at once, before they have formed
roots sufficient to support the demands of the young
leaves. Where only a few are grown, shading might, at
certain times, be given, and some light substance, like
sawdust, be spread about them, to preserve an even tem-
perature and humidity, or they might be put in a cold-
frame, where they could receive any required attention.
Where acres of cuttings are grown, these things are not
practicable.

Depth to plant. — As a general thing, cuttings should be
inserted so deep, that only two buds will be above the
surface of the ground, and in the vine only one. If cut-
tings are long, they need not be set perpendicularly, but
sloping, so as to be within reach of heat and air. A
cutting of a single eye of the vine, with a piece of wood
attached, must be entirely covered — say half an inch
deep ; see figures 58 to 62, ground line, A, B. But such
cuttings are seldom planted, except in pots, in houses, or
in hot-beds.

Preserving Cuttings. — If cuttings are not planted in
the autumn, they should at least be prepared quite early
in the winter, and be buried in the earth, out of doors, in
a pit. A mound of earth should be drawn up over the
pit to throw off water. At the very first favorable mo-
ment in the spring, they should be planted. Trenches
are opened as deep as necessary with a spade, and the
cuttings set in it at the proper distances, from three inches

86 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

to a foot, according to circumstances. When the cuttings
are in the trench, the earth is partly filled in, and trod
firmly down with the foot, then the balance is filled in and
leveled up.

Cuttings require particular attention in the way of
weeding and hoeing ; if weeds grow up thickly, and ap-
propriate the moisture of the ground, or if the surface be
allowed to crack,' as it may, after rains, if not quite sandy,
they will either make a feeble growth or fail entirely.
The ground wants repeated stirring to keep it friable and
perfectly free from weeds.

SECTION 2. — PROPAGATION BY LAYERING.

A layer is similar to a cutting, except that it is allowed
to remain in partial connection with the parent plant
until it has emitted roots. On this account, layers are
much more certain than cuttings. It is the surest and
most simple method of propagating the Grape and the
Gooseberry, and also the Quince, Paradise, and Doucin,
for stocks. It may be performed in the spring with shoots
of the previous year's growth, before vegetation has com-
menced, or in July and August, on wood of the same
season's growth". The ordinary mode of doing it is, first,
to spade over and prepare the ground in which the branch
is to be laid, in order to make it light and friable. The
branch is then brought down to the ground (fig. 63) ; an
incision is made at the base of bud, A., through the bark
and partly through the wood ; the knife is drawn upward,
splitting the shoot an inch or two in length, and the
branch is laid in the earth with the cut open, and kept
down by means of a crooked or hooked wooden peg, J5.
The earth is then drawn in smoothly around, covering it
two or three inches deep; and the end of the shoot that
•is above ground is tied up to a stick, (7, if it requires

PROPAGATION BY LAYERING.

Fig. 63.— A COMMON LAYER.

A, the incision ; B, hooked pcj
<7, stake.

support. In the Grape, Gooseberry, or Currant, a simple
notch below a bud is sufficient, and they will root if sim-
ply pegged down ; but roots
are formed more rapidly
when the shoot is cut one-
third through, and slit as
described.

A long "shoot of the vine
may be layered at several
points, and thus produce
several rooted plants in the
course of one season. This
is called serpentine layering
(fig. 64). The Quince, Para-
dise, and Doucin stocks,
where raised in large quan-
tities, are propagated in a
different way from that de-
scribed. The process requires much less labor ; and
where plants root so freely as they do, it answers every
purpose.

We will take a plant of the quince, for example, and,
in the spring, before growth commences, we cut it down
nearly to the ground, leaving four or five buds at its base
(A, fig. 65). Dur-
ing that season, a
number of vig-
orous shoots will
be made. The
following au-
tumn or spring
the earth is
drawn up around
the base of the Fi-' ^.-SERPENTINE LATER.

plant, so that the crown, where it was cut, will be covered,
and, consequently, the base of all the shoots for several

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

inches in height. During the next summer's growth, every
branch is sufficiently rooted to be separated and placed in

nursery rows the following
spring. This is the way to
obtain strong stocks ; for the
cutting back of the mother
plant produces very vigorous
shoots the first season, and
when another season's
growth is added, they are as
strong as can be desired.
We succeed in rooting
these shoots the first season
of their growth by earth-
ing • them up about mid-

A, the point at"wwc7the mother plant snmmer ; but they are not
was cut back. quite strong enough, or suf-

ficiently rooted, for transplanting and budding the fol-
lowing season.

Fig. 65.— MOUND -LAYERING OR
BANKING-UP.

SECTION 3. — PROPAGATION BY SUCKERS.

Suckers are shoots sent up from the roots. We observe
them most frequently around trees that have had their
roots wounded by the spade or plow. The wounds induce
the formation of buds, and these buds send up shoots.
They are occasionally used from necessity for stocks, but
should not be employed where seedlings can be obtained.
Occasionally, we find certain varieties of plum throw up
fine vigorous suckers, that would make excellent stocks if
taken off with good roots ; but their tendency to produce
suckers renders them exceedingly annoying in gardens,
and, on this account, objectionable. The roots of the
raspberry are full of buds, and, consequently, throw
up great quantities of suckers, and the smallest cuttings

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING. 89

of the roots will grow. Suckers, of any plants, that can
easily be propagated by cuttings or layers, should never
be used.

SECTION 4. — PROPAGATION BY BUDDING.

This operation is performed during the growing season,
and usually on young trees from one to five years old,
with a smooth, soft bark. It consists in separating a bud,
with a portion of bark attached, from a shoot of the cur-
rent season's growth of one tree, and inserting it under
the bark of another. When this bud begins to grow, all
that part of the stock above it is cut away, the bud grows
on, and eventually forms a tree of the same variety as
that from which it was taken. Buds may be inserted in
June, and make considerable growth the same season, as
they do in the South, but, as a general thing, this is not
desirable in the propagation of fruit trees. The ordinary
season in the Northern States is from the middle of July
until the middle of September, and the earliness or late-
ness at which a species is budded depends, other things
being equal, on the condition of its growth.

Those accomplishing their growth early in the season
are budded early, and those that grow until the autumn
are budded late. Thus the season extends over a period
exceeding two months. In all cases, the following condi-
tions are necessary :

1st. The buds must be perfectly developed i)i the axils
of the leaves on the young shoots intended to bud from.
This is seldom the case until the shoot has temporarily
ceased to lengthen, as indicated by the perfect formation
of its terminal bud.

If buds are wanted before this condition naturally ar-
rives, their maturity may be hastened very much by
pinching the tips of the shoots. In ten or twelve days
after the pinching of a very soft shoot, its buds are fit for
working.

90 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

2d. The bark must raise freely from the stocks to be bud-
ded. This only happens when the stocks are in a thrifty
and growing state. Trees that accomplish most of their
growth early in the season, must be watched and budded
before they cease to grow ; those that grow very late must
not be budded early, or the formation of new wood will
surround and cover the buds ; in gardener's language,
they will be " drowned by the sap."

The implements needed are a pruning-knife, to dress
the stocks by removing any branches that may be in the
way of inserting the bud; and a budding knife, to take
off the buds and make the incisions in the stock. The
latter should have a very thin, smooth, and keen edge.

Strings for tying in the buds are either taken from bass
mats, or they are prepared from the bark of the basswood.
"We always prepare our own ; we send to the woods and
strip the bark off the trees in June ; we then put it in
water from two to three weeks, according to the age of
the bark, until the fibrous, paper-like inner bark can be
easily separated from the outer, when it is torn into strips,
dried, and put away for use.

Cutting and Preparing the Buds. — Young shoots, in
the condition described, are cut below the lowest plump
bud ; an inch or two of the base of every shoot, where
the buds are very close together, and quite small, should
be left. The leaves are then stripped off, leaving half of
each leaf-stalk to handle the bud by, as in fig. 63.

Preserving the JBucZs. — When a considerable quantity is
cut at once, they should be stripped of the leaves and
wrapped in a damp cloth as soon as cut ; and they may be
preserved in good order for ten days, by keeping them
in a cool cellar among damp sawdust, or closely en-
veloped in damp cloths, matting, or moss. We often
send buds a week's journey, packed in moss slightly
moistened ; the leaves being off, the evaporation is trifling,

PROPAGATION BY BUDDING.

none, in fact, when packed up, consequently very little
moisture is needed.

Having the stocks, buds, and implements in the condi-
tion described, the operation is performed in this way :

The shoot to bud from is taken in one hand, and the
budding-knife in the other; the lower part of the edge of

the knife is placed on
the shoot, half an inch
above the bud to be
removed (A, fig. 66) ;
the thumb of the knife-
hand rests on the shoot
below the bud _Sy a
drawing cut is then
made parallel with the
shoot, removing the
bud and the bark, to
which it is attached,
half an inch above and
three-quarters below
it. This is the usual
le»gth, !><* it may, in

removing a bud. Fig. 67, A bud badly taken many Cases, be shorter,
off, with a hollow in the center. Fig. 68, A r™ . • .mnrla • ,cf

good bud ; A, root of bud ; J5, root of leaf. Q JUSt

deep enough to be be-
low the bark. A small portion of the wood is always
taken off with it, and if this adheres firmly, it should
be allowed to remain ; if it parts freely, it should be
taken out, but in doing so, the root of the bud must
be carefully preserved, for if it comes out with the
wood, the bud is useless. The root of the bud, as it
is termed, is a small portion of wood in the hollow
part of the inside of the bud. Fig. 67 is a good bud ;
A, root of bud, J?, root of leaf. Fig. 68 is imperfect,
the roots of leaf and bud both out. A smooth place
on the stock, clear of branches, is then chosen, where two

Figs. 6G to 68. — BUDDING.

92 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

incisions are made to the depth of the bark, one across
the end of the other, so as to form a T» (fig. 69) ; the bark
on the two edges of the perpendicular cut is raised (fig.
70) with the smooth ivory handle of the budding-knife,
and the bud is inserted between them (fig. 71) ; the upper
end of the bark attached to the bud is cut square, to fit
to the horizontal cut on the stock ; the bass string is then
wound around tightly, commencing at the bottom, and
covering every part of the incision, leaving the bud itself
rind the leaf-stalk uncovered (fig. 72) ; the string is fasten-
ed above the horizontal cut, and the work is done. The

70. 71. 72.

Figs. 69 to 72. — INSEBTION OF THE BUD.

Fig. 69, J., stock with the bark slit vertically and across. Fig. 70, the same,
with the bark raised. Fig. 71, the same, with the bud inserted. Fig. 72, the
same, tied up.

success of the operation, as far as its execution -is con-
cerned, depends, in a great measure, on smooth cuts, an
exact Jit of the bud to the incision made for it, secure,
close tying, that will completely exclude air and rain-
water, and the quick performance of the whole. The in-
sertion of a bud should not, in any case, occupy more than
a minute • ordinary practiced budders will set two in

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 93

that time, and often two hundred in an hour, with a per-
son to tie. Where the stocks and buds work well, two
thousand is not an uncommon day's work in our nurseries,
especially of cherries, peaches, and apples. Budding is
usually much more successful when performed in moder-
ately dry weather than in wet — the sap being in a condi-
tion more favorable for the formation of a union between
the stock and bud.

The chief difficulty, experienced by beginners in bud-
ding, is the proper removal of the bud. When it hap-
pens that the knife passes exactly between the bark and
wood, the bud cannot fail to be good ; but this rarely
happens — more or less wood is attached, and the removal
of this is the nice point. Where the buds are flat, the
difficulty is less than when they have large, prominent
shoulders, as the plum and pear have, in many cases.
When all the wood is taken out of these, a cavity re-
mains, which does not come in contact with the wood on
which the bud is placed, and therefore, although the bark
unites well, the bud will not grow. A little practice will
enable the budder to overcome this and all other me-
chanical difficulties.

SECTION 5. — PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.

Grafting is the insertion of a cion of one species or
variety on the stem or branch of another, which is called
the stock. Its principal object is the same as budding,
to increase certain varieties that cannot be reproduced
from seed with certainty ; but it is frequently performed
with other objects in view. For instance :

1o Fruit a New Variety. — A cion inserted in a branch
of a bearing tree, will bear fruit perhaps the second year
from the graft ; but if the same cion had been put on a
young seedling, it would not have borne in ten years.

One species is frequently grafted with success upon

94 GENEBAL PRINCIPLES.

another, by which certain important modifications are
wrought upon both the size and fruitfulness of trees, and
the quality of the fruits. Thus, we can graft, in many
cases, with highly beneficial results, the peach and .apri-
cot on the plum, the pear on the quince, strong-grow-
ing species and varieties on weaker ones, and vice versa.
But experience has established the fact, that there must
be, between the stock and graft, a close alliance. We cannot
graft an apple on a, peach, nor a cherry on a pear / but the
pear, the apple, quince, medlar, thorn, and mountain-ash
— a naturally allied group — may, with more or less suc-
cess, be worked upon one another.

The French horticulturists, who are the most skillful
and curious in all matters pertaining to the propagation
of plants, describe in their works upwards of one hun-
dred different modes of grafting, practiced in different
ages and countries, and for the attainment of particular
objects ; but, however interesting the study of all these
may be to the student and experimentalist, the great bulk
of them are of little practical utility, and are never applied
in the multiplication of fruit trees. It is, therefore, un-
necessary to fill up the pages of such a treatise as this,
with either a historical account, or description of them.
The methods described below are those universally adopt-
ed, with slight modifications, by the best practical propa-
gators everywhere at the present day.

/Stocks are of all ages, from a yearling seedling to a
tree forty or fifty years old ; but of whatever age, they
should be sound and healthy. Nursery stocks will be
more particularly spoken of in the proper place.

Cions are generally shoots of the previous year's
growth. Those bearing fruit-buds are only used for
the purpose of experiment, and in that rarely. They
should be cut in the autumn after the fall of the leaf, or
in the winter, and be preserved carefully in earth until
wanted for use. If intended for root-grafting early in the

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 95

spring in the house, it will be sufficient to bury their
lower ends in earth, in a cool, dry cellar ; but if wanted
for out-door grafting, they should be buried in dry sand
soil, in a pit, on the north side of a, wall or fence, and
deeply covered with earth drawn up in a mound to throw
off the water. They are thus kept perfectly dormant un-
til used, and not so dry as to shrivel the bark, They
should always be taken from healthy, vigorous trees ex-
clusively, and be of firm, well-ripened wood from the up-
per branches of the tree. A moderate-sized shoot or cion,
if well matured and sound, is much better than one as
thick as a man's finger, pithy and unripe. The implements
used in grafting are the grafting-knife, saw, and chisel,
(see implements). In whip-grafting or splice-grafting,
the stocks being small require the knife only, or not more
than the knife and chisel. It is always better to have two
knives — one to prune and do the rough work, and the
other to prepare the cion. Grafting composition is pre-
pared in various ways. Hosin, beesioax, and tallow, in
about equal parts, answer very well. Lately, however,
we have found it better to use more rosin and less bees-
wax and tallow ; thus, to two pounds of rosin we add one
and one-fourth pounds of beeswax, and three-fourths of a
pound of tallow. For whip-grafting on the root, and
small trees in the nursery, we use thin calico cloth, satu-
rated with this composition, instead of the composition it-
self, and find it more convenient and expeditious. For
root grafts, instead of cloth, we now use paper, which we
find answers the purpose perfectly. This paper is a cheap
brown article known here as " grafting paper " and is used
by nearly all nurserymen for this purpose. The liquid
wax is spread on the paper with a brush, after which it is
cut into strips an inch or so wide, ready for use. (Instead
of tallow we now use raw linseed oil, a pint of which is equal
to a pound of tallow.) We tear the calico into narrow,
strips, roll it into balls, and then soak it in the liquid com-

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

position until every pore of the cloth is filled with it. The
person who applies it to the grafts takes it from these
balls, tears it in pieces the length and breadth required
by the size of the stock, and two or three turns of it
around the graft secure it completely. This thin cloth
soon decays, and yields to the enlargement of the part it
incloses. We have tried tow, paper, and other materials,
but find this the best. Having the cions, implements,
and composition in readiness, the work is performed as
follows :

Whip- Grafting on the Hoot. — For this purpose, seed-
ling stocks are generally used, one or two
years old, varying from one-fourth to three-
eighths of an inch in diameter. The graft is
always made at the collar, and, therefore, the
stems of the plants are cut off at that
point ; the small tap-roots and any cumbrous
fibres are removed,
leaving them about
four inches in length
(fig. 73) ; they are then
washed clean, and are
ready for the opera-
tion. The grafter then
makes a smooth, even,
sloping cut, an inch
long, upwards, on the
collar of the root, A ;
and in the center of
this cut he makes a
slit or tongue, -B,
downwards. The cion,
which should be three

Or four inches long 2/, the tongue. Fig. 75, the union of cion and

(fig. 74), is cut on the stock-

lower end with a sloping cut downwards, and similar

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING. 97

in all respects to that made on the stock ; a slit, or
tongue, is made in it upwards, B, corresponding, also,
with that on the stock ; and they are then neatly fitted
together, the tongue of the one within the other (fig.
75), and the inner barks of both placed in close and
perfect contact, at least on one side. The fit should
be so complete as to sit close and firm in all parts.
The person who applies the wax takes a narrow strip
of the cloth or paper described, and wraps it firmly
around, covering the parts united. A man and boy can
graft of these, twelve to fifteen hundred per day, and by
a special effort, two thousand. When the grafting is thus
performed, the grafted plants are put away as closely as
they can be packed in small boxes, with sandy earth
among the roots, and deposited either in a cold cellar or
in a dry place out of doors, where frost cannot penetrate
to the roots, until planting time in spring.

Whip- Grafting on small trees, standing in the open
ground, is performed in precisely the same manner, the
oblique or sloping cut and tongue, corresponding in stock
and graft, fitting into each other with precision, and the
inner bark of both, at least on one side, placed in close
contact. Stocks an inch in diameter can be grafted in this
way. Either the cloth or the liquid composition may be
applied, the latter put on with a brush. For all moderate
sized stocks the cloth is preferable. In cold weather, a
small furnace can be kept at hand to keep the composi-
tion in working order.

Cleft Grafting is practiced on trees or branches too
large for whip grafting — say from an inch in diameter up-
wards. In this case, the cion is cut precisely in the form
of a wedge (fig. 76). The part cut for insertion in the
stock should be about an inch or an inch and a half long,
with a bud (A] at the shoulder, where it is to rest on the
stock ; this bud hastens the union of the parts in the same
way as a bud at the base of a cutting, set in the earth,

GENERAL PKIXCIPLES.

hastens and facilitates the emission of roots ; the outer
edge should also be somewhat thicker than the inner. A
sloping cut (Ay fig. 77) is then made on the stock, an inch
and a half long ; another cut (.#) is made across this cut,
about half way down, as at point JB/ the stock is split on

one side of the pith
by laying the chisel
on the horizontal
surface, and strik-
ing lightly with a
mallet ; the split is
kept open with the
knife or chisel until
the cion is insert-
ed, with the thick
side out (A, fig.
78). Grafts of this
kind heal much
more rapidly than
when cut at once
horizontally. Very
large branches are
sawed horizontally
oif at the point to
be grafted (A, fig.
79) ; the surface is
then pared smooth

FigS. 76 tO 78.— CLEFT GRAFTING. ^fa ^ knife, B,

Fig. 76, cion, with sloping cut on east side, like a gpHt is made with
wedge; A, bud at the shoulder ; 5, section showing £ , . .

shape of wedge. Fig. 77, the stock cut and split ; A, *ne chisel, nearly in
the sloping cut; B, horizontal cut. Fig. 78, the cion the Center, and tWO
inserted in the stock. j vi

wedge-like cions in-
serted (A, B, fig. 80) ; if both grow, and they are after-
wards too close, one can be cut away. Another mode of
grafting such large stocks, or branches, is to cut them off
horizontally, as above, and pare them smooth with tjie

PROPAGATION BY GRAFTING.

knife ; then cut the cion on one side, about an inch and
a half long, making a shoulder at the top ; then raise the
bark from the stock with the handle of a budding-knife,
and insert the cion between the bark and wood; ap-
ply the composition the same as in the others, all over
the cut part. Two or three cions may be put in each.
The principal objection to this mode is that the grafts, if
they grow rapidly, are apt to
be blown off before they have
united strongly to the stock.

The great points to observe
always, are — to have sharp in-
struments, that will make
smooth, clean cuts; to have
placed in perfect contact the
inner barks of cion and stock ;
to have the whole cut surface
and every portion of the split
perfectly covered with the com-
position, and to exclude air and
water. The cion should always
be cut close to a bud at the point
(A, fig. 76), and have a bud at
the shoulder, or point of union
with the stock (A, fig. 78).

In grafting the heads of large
trees, it is not convenient to use
the composition in a melted
state, to be put on with the
brush, and the large cut surfaces
cannot well be covered with the
cloth ; it is, therefore, better to with two cions inserted.
use the composition in such a state that it can be put on
with the hands. A very small quantity of brick-dust may
be advantageously mixed with it when intended for this
purpose, to prevent its being melted by the sun.

79. 80.

Figs. 79 and 80. — CLEFT

GRAFTING.

100 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Double "Working. — When we graft or bud a tree already
budded or grafted, we call it " double- worked." Certain
very important advantages are gained by it. Some varie-
ties are of such feeble growth, that it is impossible to
make good trees of them in the ordinary way of working
on common stocks. In such cases, we use worked trees
of strong growing sorts as stocks for them.

Many varieties of the pear do not unite well with the
quince stock ; we therefore bud other varieties of strong
growth, that do succeed, and use them for stocks to work
the others on. By this means we are enabled to possess
dwarf trees of many varieties, that we could not other-
wise have in that form. We have fruited the Dix in two
years by double working on the quince, when otherwise
it would have taken not less than seven. Some varieties
of fruit trees are much better than others, though of equal
vigor, to graft upon. In the pear, for example, we find
the White Doyenne makes a good stock for almost all
other varieties — superior, in this respect, to any other we
have ever experimented with. A great many improve-
ments may be effected, not only in the form and growth
of trees, but in the quality of the fruit, by double work-
ing. Very few experiments have yet been made on the
subject in this country, except from necessity ; but the
general interest now felt on all matters pertaining to fruit-
tree culture cannot fail to direct attention to this and
similar matters that have heretofore, in a great measure,
been overlooked.

CHAPTER V.

PRUNING— ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.

Pruning is one of the most important operations con-
nected with the management of trees. From the removal
of the seedling plant from the seed-bed, through all its

PRUNING. 101

successive stages of growth and maturity, pruning, to
some extent, and for some purpose, is necessary. It may,
therefore, be reasonably presumed that no one is capable
of managing trees successfully, and especially those con-
ducted under certain forms, more or less opposed to
nature, without knowing well how to prune^ what to prime ,
and when to prune. This knowledge can only be acquired
by a careful study of the structure of trees, because the
pruning applied to a tree must (aside from the general
principles on which all pruning depends) be adapted to
its particular habits of growth and mode of bearing its
fruit. It is in view of this fact that the chapter on the
structure and mode of formation of the different parts of
fruit trees has been given in the first part of this treatise,
that it may form the basis of this branch of culture.

The idea that our bright American sun and clear at-
mosphere render pruning an almost unnecessary operation,
has not only been inculcated by horticultural writers, but
has been acted upon in practice to such an extent, that
more than three-fourths of all the bearing fruit trees in
the country are at this moment either lean, misshaped
skeletons, or the heads are perfect masses of wood, unable
to yield more than one bushel in ten of fruit, well matur-
ed, colored, and ripened.

This is actually the case even in what may be called,
in comparison, well-managed orchards. Look at the dif-
ference between the fruits produced on young and old
trees. The former are open, the fruits are exposed to the
sun, and, therefore, they are not only large and perfect,
but their skins are smooth and brilliant, as though they
were painted and polished. This ought to teach us some-
thing about pruning. But this is only one point. We
prune one portion of a tree to reduce its vigor, and to
favor the growth of another and weaker part. We prune
a stem, a branch, or a shoot, to produce ramifications of
these parts, and thus change or modify the form of the

102 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

whole. We prime to induce fruitfulness, and to diminish
it. We prune in the growing as well as in the dormant
season, and, finally, we prune both roots and branches.
Thus we see that pruning is applied to all parts of the
tree, at all seasons, and to produce the most opposite
results.

It appears necessary to treat of pruning, under each of
these circumstances, separately.

1st. Pruning to direct the Growth from one part of
a tree to another. — The first period in the existence and
growth of a tree in which this becomes necessary, is in
the nursery. Those who have had any experience in tree
culture, have observed that young trees in nursery rows
have a tendency to increase in height without acquiring a
well-proportioned increase in diameter. In certain cases,
this want of proportion becomes so great, that the tree
bends under its own weight, and hence it is necessary to
resort to some method of propping it up. This condition
is attributable to several causes. First, the absence of a
sufficient amount of air and light around the stem, to
enable the leaves on it to fulfill their functions properly.
It has been shown that the formation of new wood de-
pends upon the elaborating process carried on in the
leaves, and that this process can be maintained only in a
free exposure to the sun and air. This being the case, it
is obvious that any part of the tree excluded from the
action of these agents cannot keep pace in growth with
other parts to which they have full access. In nursery
rows, as trees are usually planted, the stems, after the
first year's growth, are to a great extent excluded from
the light, consequently the buds and leaves on them can-
not perform their parts in the creation of new wood. The
top of the tree, however, is fully exposed, and, conse-
quently, it makes a rapid growth towards the free air and
light. When this is continued for two or three years in
succession, the tree becomes top-heavy; the quantity of

PRUNING. 103

woody fibre at the top is as great as, and it may be
greater than, at the bottom ; and hence it bends under
its own weight.

2d. The tendency of the sap to the growing points
at the top of the tree. — Growth is always the most ac-
tive and vigorous at the newly formed parts, when trees
are in a natural condition. The young buds are the most
excitable, and the more direct their communication with
the roots, the more rapid will be their growth. Hence
it is that a yearling tree, furnished with fifteen to twenty
buds or more, from its base to its top, frequently produces
a shoot from its terminal bud only, and seldom more than
three or four shoots from the whole number of buds, and
these at the top. This natural tendency, and the exclu-
sion of light from the stems of nursery trees by their
closeness to one another, are the chief causes of weak
and crooked trees, to counteract which we resort to
pruning.

In " heading down " a young tree, we cut away one-
third or one-half of the length of the stem, and this removes
the actively growing parts. The sap must then find new
channels. Its whole force is directed to the buds that were
before dormant ; they are excited into growth, and produce
new wood and leaves ; these send down new layers of
woody fibre on the old stem, and it increases rapidly in
diameter, so that by the time it has attained its former
height, the base is two or three times as thick as the top,
and possesses sufficient strength to maintain an erect
position.

Maintaining an equal Growth among the branches of a
tree is conducted on the same principle. Branches that
are more favorably placed than others, appropriating more
than their due proportion of the sap, and growing too vig-
orously, are checked by removing more or less of their
growing points ; this lessens the flow of sap to that
point, and it naturally takes its course to the growing

104 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

parts of the weaker branches that were left entire, and
thus a balance is restored.

Pruning to renew the Growth of stunted trees. — It
frequently happens that trees, from certain causes, become
stunted, and almost cease to grow, and every part as-
sumes a comparatively dormant condition. In such cases
they are cut back, the number of their buds and leaves is
reduced, the whole force of the sap is made to act upon
the small number remaining, and enables them to produce
vigorous young shoots ; these send down new woody
matter to the stem, new roots are also formed, and thus
the whole tree is renewed and invigorated.

Pruning to induce Fruitfulness. — This is conducted on
the principle that whatever is favorable to rapid, vigorous
growth, is unfavorable to the immediate production of
fruit. Hence, the object in view must be to check growth
and impede the circulation of the sap — just the opposite
of pruning to renew growth. The only period at which
this pruning can be performed, is after vegetation has
commenced. If a tree is severely pruned immediately
after it has put forth its leaves, it receives such a check as
to be unable to produce a vigorous growth the same
season ; the sap is impeded in its circulation, and the re-
sult is that a large number of the young shoots that
\vould have made vigorous wood branches, had they not
been checked, assume the character of fruit spurs and
branches. Pinching is the principal mode of pruning
to promote fruitfulness, and will be explained hereafter.
It depends upon the above principle of impeding the
circulation of the sap and checking growth.

Pruning to diminish Fruitfulness is conducted on the
same principle as that to renew growth, for this, in fact,
is the object.

Pruning the Roots. — This is practiced as well to pro-
mote fruitfulness as to lessen the dimensions of trees.
The roots, as has been shown, are the organs that absorb

PRUNING. 105

from the ground the principal food of the tree, and in pro-
portion to their number, size, and activity, other things
being equal, are the vigor and growth of the stem and
branches. Hence, when a tree is deprived of a certain
portion of its roots, its supply of food from the soil is
lessened, growth is checked, the sap moves slowly in its
channels, is better elaborated in the leaves, and the young
branches and buds begin to assume a fruitful character.

Roots are also pruned to prevent them from penetrat-
ing too deeply into the earth, and to induce the formation
of lateral roots near the surface, similar to the cutting
back of a stem to produce lateral branches ; the principle
is the same.

Pruning at the time of Transplanting. — This is per-
formed, not only to remove bruised and broken roots and
branches, but to restore the tree to a proper balance. As
trees are ordinarily taken from the ground, the roots are
bruised, broken, or mutilated, to a greater or less extent.
This obviously destroys the natural balance or proportion
that existed between the roots and stem, and in such a
condition the tree is unable to grow. The demand upon
the roots must therefore be lessened by reducing the stem
and branches in length or number, or both ; and the more
the roots have suffered, the greater must be the reduction
of the stem and branches to bring them to a Correspond-
ing condition.

PRUNING MECHANICALLY CONSIDERED.

Having now treated of the principles on which prun-
ing depends, it remains to speak of its mechanical execu-
tion ; for it is not only necessary to know what and why,
but how to prune. Theory is only useful as it serves to
guide in practice.

1st. Pruning Stems or Branches. — The great point to
be observed in making incisions on the stems and branches
5*

106

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

of trees, is to provide for the speedy and perfect healing
of the wounds, or cut surfaces. In removing a portion of
a branch, or stem, if we cut between two joints, and thus
leave a portion of wood above the bud intended to be
cut to, as in fig. 81, this wood dies, and we have the
trouble of another pruning to remove it. If we cut too
close to the bud, and thus remove a portion of the wood
with which it is connected, as in fig. 82, the bud will
either die, or disappoint us by producing a very feeble
growth. The proper way is to take the branch to be
operated on in the left hand, place the edge of the knife

Figs. 81 to 84.— PRUNING.

Fig. 81, cutting too far above the bud. Fig. 82. cutting too close. Fig. 83, the
cut as it should be. Fig. 84, removal of a branch, the cross-line indicating the
proper place for the cut.

on it, opposite the lower part of the bud to be 'cut to,
and then make a firm, quick, smooth draw-cut, sloping
upwards, so that the knife will come out on a level with
the point of the bud, as in fig. 83. In soft-wooded, pithy
trees, like the grape-vine, for example, half an inch of
wood ought to be left above the bud. The cut should
also be made as much as possible on the lower side of the
branch to prevent rain from lodging in the center. The
position of the bud cut to is also worthy of consideration
in pruning, to produce or modify certain forms. When

PRUNING. 107

we wish the new shoot of a lateral branch to take, as
much as possible, an upright direction, we prune to a bud
on the inside / and if wo wish it to spread, we choose
one on the outside. In the annual suppression, or cutting
back of young trees, to form a stem or side branches, the
bud selected to form the leader is chosen on opposite
sides every successive year, in order to maintain the growth
in a straight line. If cut every year to a bud on the
same side, it would, in two or three seasons, show an
inclination to that side injurious to the symmetry of the
tree.

The removal of large Branches, where they are to be
entirely separated from the tree, is often very clumsily
performed. In orchards, it is not at all uncommon to see
them chopped oif with a common axe ; and even in gar-
dens there seem to be few persons who either know how,
or take the proper care in this matter. They are either
cut so that a portion of the base of the branch remains,
and sends out vigorous shoots, defeating the objects of
the pruning, or they are cut so close that a portion of the
wood of the main branch or stem is taken with them,
and a wound made that years are required to heal up.
Both these extremes ought to be avoided.

The surface of the cut made by the removal of a branch
should in no case be larger than the base of the branch.
Where a branch is united to another or to the main stem,
we notice, both above and below the point of union, a
small projection, or shoulder, as at the cross-line in fig.
84. The knife must enter jilst below that shoulder, and,
by being drawn upwards in a straight line, the base is so
completely removed that no shoots can be produced there,
and yet the cut surface on the stem is no larger than the
base of the branch. When the saw is used, the surface
of the cut should be pared smooth with the knife, both
to prevent water lodging on it, and to facilitate the heal-
ing of the wound.

108 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

2d. Pruning the Hoots. — This is performed by opening
a trench around the tree, just at the extremities of the
roots : the distance from the tree will, therefore, depend
on its size, and the spreading character of the roots.
The trench should be the width of a common garden
spade, and deep enough to admit of an inspection of all
the roots of the tree. If the lateral roots are to be short-
ened, this is done first. The knife should be placed on
the lower side of the root, and the part separated with a
clean draw-cut, such as would be performed on a branch.
If the tree has vertical or tap roots, they are most
easily operated on with a sharp spade, prepared and kept
for the purpose. A smart stroke with such a spade, in as
nearly a horizontal direction as possible, will separate a
pretty strong root. The extent to which root pruning
may be performed depends on the character of the spe-
cies, the condition of the tree as regards growth, and the
object aimed at. Those practising it for the first time
should go to work with great caution. It will l^e better
to operate too lightly than too severely. As regards the
season, it may be performed either at the end of the first
growth, in July or August, or in the autumn or winter,
when vegetation is quite suspended. We have operated
on cherry trees with complete success in August, in a dry
time, when little growth was going on. At this season,
a copious watering should be given after the pruning is
performed.

Implements of pruning, and the mode of using them,
will be treated of in the chapter on implements, to be
given hereafter.

The Season for Pruning. — We are not permitted to be
very definite on this point. The climate, the nature of
the species, etc., control the period of pruning to a great
extent. In the South, what we term the winter pruning
— that performed during the dormant season — may be
done very soon after the fall of the leaf. In the North,

PRUNING. 1 09

it is deferred to February, March, and even April. In
Western New York, we prune apples, pears, and other
hardy fruits any time that we have leisure, between the
fall of the leaf and the first of April.

The peach we prune just as the buds begin to swell.
The fruit and leaf buds are then easily distinguished from
one another, and the objects of the pruning are accom-
plished with more precision.

Grapes may be pruned any time in the winter, as a
portion of wood is always left above the bud ; and if the
wood is wanted for propagation, it should be cut before
the season of severe frosts arrive, as the buds are liable
to be injured. Gooseberries and currants, also, any time
in winter. The stone fruits should always be lightly
primed, because severe amputations almost invariably
produce the gum. Where it is absolutely necessary, in
the spring, the wound should be coated with grafting
composition, or with that recommended by Mr. Downing :
" Alcohoi, with sufficient gum shellac dissolved in it to
make a liquid of the consistence of paint, to be put on
with a brush."

This excludes air, and is not affected by changes of
weather.

Pinching is a sort of anticipated pruning, practiced
upon the young growing shoots, intended to promote a
uniform circulation of the sap, and thus regulate the
growth, and also to induce fruitfulness.

1st. To regulate the Growth. — In the management of
trees, this is an operation of great importance, as it obvi-
ates the necessity of heavy amputations being made at
the winter or spring pruning. Instead of allowing certain
superfluous or misplaced shoots to acquire their full de-
velopment at the expense of other parts, we pinch them
early, and give to the necessary parts, or branches of the
tree, the nutriment which they would have appropriated
if allowed to remain. In this way we are able to obtain

110

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

results in one season that two or more would be required
for, if we depended wholly on the winter pruning. We
will suppose, for an example, the case of a young nursery
tree in the second year, intended for a standard. In ordi-
nary cases, the terminal bud, either the natural one or

Fig. 85, A— Fig. 85, B.— PRUNING AND PINCHING.

Fig 85, A, head of a young tree ; b, the leader ; a, a, vigorous shoots below
it, that ought to have been pinched. Fig. 85, B, a branch of the pear, twice cut
back, with the lateral shoots pinched ; a, a, the first section ; c, c, c, the second ;
£», and d, d, shoots pinched close to favor the leader and those below them.

that pruned to, is developed into the leading shoot or
stem, and a greater or less number of buds below it pro-
duce branches ; and it frequently happens that some of

PRUNING. Ill

these, if not pinched, acquire so much vigor as to injure
the leader, and produce a consequent deformity in the
tree. Figure 85 (A) represents a case of this kind, which
is very common, and too often neglected. The shoots, a,
#, ought to have been pinched the moment they began to
exhibit a disposition to outgrow the leader. There are
other cases, still worse than this, familiar to all tree
growers ; for instance, where a strong shoot is produced
on the middle or lower part of the stem, attracting an
undue proportion of the sap, thus contracting the growth
of all other parts, and giving the young tree a deformed
character. All such shoots as these should be nipped
early, the moment their character is apparent, and thus a
year's growth, nearly, will be saved to the tree, and its
proper form and proportions be preserved. In conducting
young trees for pyramids, the constant and careful appli-
cation of pinching is absolutely necessary, for in them we
must have the lower branches always the strongest and
longest, and it is only by operating on the shoots, in their
earliest stages of growth, that we can fully attain this
end; for the strongest shoots do not always grow at the
desired point, but by timely attention they are perfectly
within our control. The various accidents and circum-
stances to which young trees are subject, give rise, in a
multitude of cases, to an unequal distribution of the sap
in their different parts, and this produces, to a greater or
less extent, deformity of growth. This at once shows the
necessity for pinching, to check the strong and favor the
weak.

Pinching to promote Fruitfulness. — Those who have
never practised this, or observed its results, may have
seen, if experienced in tree growing, that a shoot of which
the point was broken, bruised, or otherwise injured, dur-
ing the growing season, frequently becomes a fruit branch
either during the same or the following season ; and this,
especially if situated in the interior of the tree, or on the

GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

older and lower parts of the branches. The check given
to the extension of the shoot concentrates the sap in the
part remaining ; and, unless the check has been given
very early in the season, or the growth is very vigorous in
the tree, so that the buds will break and form shoots, they
are certain to prepare for the production of fruit. It is
on this principle of checking the growth and concentrat-
ing the sap in the pinched shoot, that pinching to induce
fruitfulness is performed ; and its efficiency may be esti-
mated from the fact, that trees on which it has been prac-
tised, have borne fruit four or five, and perhaps seven
years, sooner than they would have done without it.

It is a most useful operation in the case of vigorous
growing and tardy bearing sorts. The mode of performing
it is to pinch off the end of the shoot with the finger and
thumb ; if a small portion of the remaining part be bruis-
ed, no matter, it offers a greater check than if a clean cut
were made, as in pruning to a bud ; and in the general
winter or spring pruning which follows, the bruised parts
can be cleanly separated. The time to perform it depends
wholly on circumstances. If the object be to regulate
growth, then the time to do it is when the tendency to
undue or ill-proportioned growth is first observable, and
this will be from the'. time the young shoots are two to
three inches long and upwards. The particular season of
the year or day of the month will, of course, depend upon
the earliness or lateness of the season, and on the soil and
situation as well as on the habits of growth of the species
or variety to be operated on. The true way is to be al-
ways on the watch. If the object be to induce fruitful-
ness, the length which the shoots should attain before
being pinched, depends upon the nature or mode of growth
and bearing of the species, and will be more definitely
treated hereafter, under the head of "The Pruning of
Trees;" the object now being merely to indicate general
principles and modes of operating. To illustrate this, let

PRUNING. 113

us suppose the lateral branch of a pear tree, (fig. 85, B).
This was cut back the first time to b, and below that
point five shoots were produced, none of which were need-
ed for branches. We therefore pinched them in June,
when about three inches long or thereabouts, and the
result is, they are now fruit branches. The same branch
was cut back the second time to d, d, and on that section
seven shoots were produced that were not needed in the
form of the tree, and were consequently pinched, and will
become fruit branches. At the points b, and d, d, are
small spurs, the base of shoots that have been pinched
close to favor the growth of the leader, as well as the
development of the shoots below. Without pinching, it
would have been impossible to obtain such results in this
branch in the same time.

M. Dubreuil, formerly Professor of Arboriculture in the
Garden of Plants at Rouen, in France, sums up the gen-
eral principles of pruning as follows. (I may remark here,
that in 1849 I visited the Rouen garden, and found M.
DubreuiPs theory and practice beautifully illustrated on
the trees in his charge. My visit was made at the time
of his practical lectures, and I was able to examine the
whole with the most satisfactory minuteness. The trees
there, under all forms, and embracing' all the hardy spe-
cies of fruits, were the best that I found anywhere, not
even excepting the much admired and famous pyramidal
pear trees of M. Cappe, at Paris. They were not only
perfect in form, but, as regards vigor and fruitfulness, in
the most admirable condition.) He says :

" The theory of the pruning of fruit trees rests on the
following six general principles :

" 1. The vigor of a tree, subjected to pruning, depends,
in a great measure, on the equal distribution of sap in all
its branches.

" In fruit trees abandoned to themselves, the sap is
equally distributed in the different parts without any other

114 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

aid than nature, because the tree assumes the form most
in harmony with the natural tendency of the sap.*

" But in those submitted to pruning, it is different ; the
forms imposed on them, such as espalier, pyramid, vase,
etc., change more or less the normal direction of the sap,
and prevent it from taking the form proper to its species.
Thus nearly all the forms given to trees require the devel-
opment of ramifications more or less numerous, and of
greater or less dimensions at the base of the stem. And,
as the sap tends by preference towards the summit of the
tree, it happens that, unless great care be taken, the
branches at the base become feeble, and finally dry up,
and the form intended to be obtained disappears, to be
replaced by the natural form, that is, a stem or a trunk
with a branching head. It is then indispensable, if we
wish to preserve the form we impose upon trees, to em-
ploy certain means, by the aid of which the natural direc-
tion of the sap can be changed and directed towards the
points where we wish to obtain the most vigorous growth.
To do this we must arrest vegetation in the parts to which
the sap is carried in too great abundance, and on the con-
trary favor the parts that do not receive enough. To ac-
complish this the following means must be successively
employed.

" (1.) Prune the branches of the most vigorous parts very
short, and those of the weak parts long. We know that the
sap is attracted by the leaves. The removal of a large
number of wood-buds from the vigorous parts, deprives
these parts of the leaves which these buds would have pro-
duced ; consequently the sap is attracted there in less
quantities, and the growth thereby diminished. The feeble

* This is not true in all cases. Peach trees, we know, in our climate, left to
themselves, exhibit a very striking example of the unequal distribution of the
sap. The ends of the branches attract nearly the whole, leaving the lateral shoots
and lower parts to die out. In other species, similar instances might be quoted,
and as a general thing, the proposition is unsound, except in a comparative
sense.

PRUNING. 115

parts being pruned long, present a great number of buds,
which produce a large surface of leaves, and these attract
the sap and acquire a vigorous growth. This principle
holds good in all trees, under whatever form they may be
conducted.

" (2.) Leave a large quantity of fruit on the strong part,
and remove the whole, or greater part\ from the feeble. We
know already that the fruit has the property of attracting
to it the sap from the roots, and of employing it entirely
to its own growth. The necessary result of this is, Avhat we
are about to point out, viz., that all the sap which arrives
in the strong parts, will be absorbed by the fruits, and the
wood there, in consequence, will make but little growth;
while on the feeble part, deprived of fruits, the sap will
all be appropriated by the growing parts, and they will
increase in size and strength.

" (3.) Send the strong parts, and Jceep the weak erect.
The more erect the branches and stem are, the greater will
be the flow of sap to the growing parts ; hence, the feeble
parts being erect, attract much more sap than the strong
parts inclined, and, consequently, make a more vigorous
growth and soon recover their balance. This remedy is
more especially applied to espalier trees.

" (4.) Remove from the vigorous parts the superfluous
shoots as early in the season as possible, and from the
feeble parts as late as possible. The fewer the number of
young shoots there are on a branch, the fewer there are
of leaves, and consequently the less is the sap attracted
there. Hence, in leaving the young shoots on the feeble
part, their leaves attract the sap there, and induce a vigor-
ous growth.

u (5.) Pinch early the soft extremities of the shoots on the
vigorous parts, and as late as possible on the feeble parts,
excepting always any shoots which may be too vigorous
for their position. By thus pinching early, the strong
part, the flow of sap to that point is checked, and natural-

116 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

ly turns to the growing parts that have not been pinch-
ed ; this remedy is applicable to trees in all forms.

" (6.) Lay in the strong shoots on the trellis early, and
leave the feeble parts loose as long as possible. Laying in
the strong parts obstructs the circulation of the sap in
them, and consequently favors the weak parts that are
loose. This is only applicable to espaliers.

u (7.) In espalier trees, giving the feeble parts the benefit
of the light and confining the strong parts more in the
shade, restores a balance, for light is the agent which en-
ables leaves to perform their functions and vtheir action on
the roots, and the parts receiving the greatest proportion
of it acquire the most vigorous development.

"2. The sap acts with greater force and produces more
vigorous growth on a branch or shoot pruned short than
on one pruned long. This is easily explained. The
sap, acting on two buds, must evidently produce a great-
er development of wood on them than if it were divided
between fifteen or twenty buds.

" It follows from this, that if we wish to obtain wood
branches, we prune short, for vigorous shoots produce
few fruit-buds. On the contrary, if we wish to obtain
fruit branches, we prune long, because the most slender
or feeble shoots are the most disposed to fruit.

" Another application of this principle is to prune short,
for a year or two, such trees or parts as have been enfee-
bled by overbearing. (This principle deserves especial
attention, as its application is of great importance.)

" 3. The sap tending always to the extremities of the
shoots causes the terminal bud to push with greater vigor
than the laterals. According to this principle, when we
wish a prolongment of a stem or branch, we should prune
to a vigorous wood-bud, and leave no production that can
interfere with the action of the sap on it.

" 4. The more the sap is obstructed in its circulation,
the more likely it will be to produce fruit-buds. This

PRUNING. 117

principle is founded on a fact to which we have already
had occasion to refer, viz., that the sap circulating slowly
is subjected to a more complete elaboration in the tissues
of the tree, and becomes better adapted to the formation
of fruit-buds.

" This principle can be applied to produce the following
results : When we wish to produce fruit-buds on a branch,
we prevent a free circulation of the sap by bending the
branches, or by making annular or circular incisions on
it ; and, on the contrary, when we wish to change a fruit
branch into a wood branch, we give it a vertical position,
or prune it to two or three buds, on which we concentrate
the action of the sap, and thus induce their vigorous de-
velopment.

" 5. The leaves serve to prepare the sap absorbed by the
roots for the nourishment of the tree, and aid the forma-
tion of buds on the shoots. All trees, therefore, deprived
of their leaves, are liable to perish. This principle shows
how dangerous it is to remove a large quantity of leaves
from trees under the pretext of aiding the growth or
ripening of fruits, for the leaves are the nourishing organs,
and the trees deprived of them cannot continue to grow,
neither can the fruit ; and the branches so stripped will
have feeble, ill-formed buds, which will, the following
year, produce a weak and sickly growth.

" 6. Where the buds of any shoot or branch do not de-
velop before the age of two years, they can only be forced
into activity by a very close pruning, and in some cases,
as the peach, this even will often fail. This last principle
shows the importance of pruning the main branches of
espaliers especially, so as to insure the development of the
buds of their successive sections, and to preserve well the
side shoots thus produced, for without this, the interior
of the tree will become naked and unproductive, and a
remedy will be very difficult."

If these principles and practices of pruning be carefully

118 GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

studied in connection with the habits of growth and bear-
ing of the different fruit trees, pruning will be compara-
tively an easy matter. The mode of obtaining any par-
ticular form or character cannot fail to be perfectly plain
and simple ; yet no one need hope to accomplish, in all
things, the precise results aimed at, for even the most
skillful operator is sometimes disappointed ; but those who
give constant attention to their trees will always discover
a failure in time to apply a remedy.

I insist upon it, because I have been taught it by most
abundant experience, that the most unremitting watch-
fulness is necessary in conducting trees in particular forms.
It is not, by any means, labor that is required, but attention
that the most delicate hand can perform. Fifteen or twenty
minutes at a time, say three times a week during active
growth, will be sufficient to examine every shoot on a
moderate collection of garden trees ; for the eye very soon
becomes trained so well to the work, that a glance at a
tree will detect the parts that are either too strong or too
weak, or that in any way require attention. This is one
of the most interesting features in the management of
garden trees. We are never allowed to forget them.
From day to day they require some attention, and offer
some new point of interest that attracts us to them, and
augments our solicitude for their prosperity, until it actu-
ally grows into enthusiasm.

II.

THE NURSERY

119

THE NURSERY.

CHAPTER I.

SECTION 1. — SOIL, SITUATION, ETC.

It is not a part of the design of this treatise to give
anything like a full exposition of nursery operations, for
this would, in itself, be a subject sufficiently extensive to
form a volume ; but as all fruit growers should possess at
least some knowledge of nursery management, it seems
quite necessary that the more important points should be
noticed.

1st. The Soil, as to Dryness. — For a fruit-tree nursery
the soil must be perfectly dry, both above and below. In
damp, springy soils, or where the subsoil is so compact as
not to admit of the surface water passing off immediately,
trees do not thrive ; the roots are destitute of fibres, the
wood is watery and delicate, and where frosts are severe,
the trees are cast out of the ground by the expansion of
the water with which the soil is filled. We have known
of a single instance in which several thousand dollars
were lost by planting a pear nursery on a soil imperfectly
drained. The plants grew finely the first season, were
budded, the buds had taken, and in the autumn all looked
prosperous ; but the autumn rains filled the soil with water ;
the situation was low and level, and the subsoil compact,
BO that the water could not possibly get away. The
consequence was, the roots decayed, the plants were cast
out of the ground, and the injury was so great and so
general that the whole plantation had to be taken up,
This ground was then thoroughly drained, and is now as
good a pear soil as can be found. This single instance
illustrates the importance of a dry soil, as well as twenty
would. We frequently find that, in the same row of trees,
if there happens to be a low, damp spot, the trees in it
6 121

122 THE NURSERY.

have no fibrous roots, and are altogether inferior to those
on the adjacent dry ground.

2d. Depth. — As a general thing,- the soil of a nursery
should be a foot to eighteen inches deep ; but all trees do
not require the same depth. Those (such as the pear)
whose roots descend more than they spread, require the
deepest soil. The best quality of nursery trees are grown
on common farming land, twice plowed with the common
and subsoil plows, one following the other, as described
in the chapter on soils. This gives depth enough for all
ordinary purposes.

3d. Texture. — A soil of medium texture, between the
heavy and the light, is, on the whole, the most advan-
tageous, as being the best adapted to general purposes.
A good friable loam,. with a gravelly subsoil, or a mixture
of sand, gravel, and clay, that will allow water to pass
off freely, will be found suitable for almost any species ;
and one great advantage of such a soil is, that it admits
of rotation in crops.

4th. Quality. — For the growth of young fruit trees, a
soil should be in such a condition as to furnish a sufficient
supply of nutriment to insure a vigorous and robust
growth ; but it may be too rich, and produce rank wood
that will not mature properly, and be unable to withstand
the change of climate or soil consequent upon transplant-
ing. Where manures are used, they should be well de-
composed ; fresh, warm manures excite trees into a very
rapid growth, but the wood is watery and feeble. A dry
soil, of moderate richness, produces hardy trees ; their
wood is firm, the buds plump and close together, and the
parts well proportioned.

5th. Laying out. — Where the nursery is of considerable
extent, the ground should be laid out and arranged in
square or rectangular plots of convenient size, and be in-
tersected with walks. One portion should be set apart
for the propagation of stocks from layers, another for

SOIL, ETC. 123

cuttings, another for seeds, etc. In setting apart ground
for the different kinds of trees, if there be a choice, the
pear should have the deepest and best, the plum the most
compact or clayey, the peach, apricot, cherry, etc., the
lightest and driest.

6th. Exposure. — Nursery ground for fruit trees should be
well elevated, but not fully exposed to the prevailing high
winds, as the young trees are apt to be broken off during
the first year's growth if not kept well tied up to stakes.
In our section, we find it very advantageous to have some
protection from the west winds especially, though we
sometimes have a south wind quite destructive to the
young buds in exposed places. Situations into which the
snow is liable to drift should be avoided, in sections
where heavy snow-storms prevail, for sometimes vast
quantities of trees are broken down in corners of fences
and sheltered situations where the snow accumulates in
heavy drifts.

7th. Hotation or Succession of Crops. — This is quite as
important in the management of the nursery as of the
farm. Not more than one crop of one species should be
planted on the same ground, and those of the most oppo-
site character should follow one another. Where one
species is grown on the same ground for eight or ten
years, it is found by experience that even the most liberal
manuring fails to produce such fine, sound, healthy, and
vigorous trees as new ground without manure. Where
land is scarce, and it is necessary to use the same ground
for the same kind of trees, it should at least be allowed
one, but much better, two or three seasons' rest, and be
well supplied with such material as the trees to be grown
in it require, in the largest quantities, or in which the soil
is found to be most deficient. Our own practice is to seed
down with clover, and break up the second or third year;
giving before plowing a dressing of manure, adapted in
quantity and quality to the wants of the soil.

THE NURSERY.
SECTION 2. — DESCRIPTION AND PROPAGATION OF STOCKS.

This branch of the subject is of such importance, and
involves so many considerations, that it seems to be more
methodical to treat it separately from subsequent opera-
tions.

1st. Stocks for the Apple. — The principal stocks in use
for the apple are the common seedling, or free stock, the
Douc in, and the Paradise.

Seedlings, or free stocks, are ordinarily produced from
seeds taken promiscuously from the cider-mill in the
autumn.

Preparing the Seed. — The cakes of pressed pomace are
broken up, and the coarser materials, straw, etc., sepa-
rated from it by means of a coarse sieve ; the sifted pomace
is then put into large tubs, and subjected to repeated
washings until clean. The clean, plump seeds fall to the
bottom, and the pomace and light, poor seeds are carried
off in the washings. When fruits have been selected for
the seeds, they are placed in heaps until fermentation and
decay have reduced the flesh to a soft, pulpy state, when
they are washed in tubs, in the same manner as pomace.

Saving the Seed. — When the seed is washed out as
above, it must be spread thinly on boards, and repeatedly
turned over until perfectly dry, when it is put away in
boxes, mixed with sand containing a slight degree of
moisture. The boxes should be well secured against ver-
min, and be kept in a dry, cool place until the time of
planting.

Season and Mode of Planting. — If the ground be in
readiness, and perfectly dry and friable, the best time is
the fall, as soon as the seeds are cleaned. At this season
the pomace, seeds and all, as it conies from the press, may
be planted without any washing. It should be broken
up fine, so that it may be evenly distributed in the seed
bed. The difficulty of doing this, is a serious objection to

PROPAGATION OP STOCKS. 125

this mode. By taking some pains in the sowing, we raise
as good stocks in this as in any other way; the decayed
pulp contributes considerable nutriment to the young
plants in their earliest stage of growth.

When deferred until spring, it should be done at the
earliest moment that the condition of the ground will ad-
mit. When the ground is ready, a line is stretched along
one side of the plot, and a drill opened with a hoe about
eight or ten inches wide, and three deep ; the seeds are
then dropped, and the fine earth drawn over them with
the hoe as regularly as possible, covering them about three
inches deep. If some leaf mould from the woods, or old
decomposed manure, in a fit state for spreading, could be
had, nnd a covering of it an inch in depth spread on the
top of the drills, it would prevent the surface from baking
or cracking, and allow the plants to come up with greater
strength and regularity. Whatever depth be used of
such a covering, it should be deducted from the covering
of common earth.

Distance to Plant. — When large quantities are raised,
the drills should be three feet apart, to admit of the culti-
vator passing between them ; for the ground should be
kept perfectly clean and mellow around seedlings the
whole season.

After Management. — It is of great importance that they
be not in any way stunted; neither in first coming through
the soil by a hard surface, nor afterwards by weeds and
lack of culture ; seedlings, stunted during the early stages
of their growth, never make vigorous, healthy stocks ; and,
indeed, should never be planted. When they appear
above the surface, and are too close together, they should,
as soon as possible, be thinned out to regular distances ;
for, when grown up in dense masses, they are generally
feeble and worthless. One hundred good, vigorous stocks
are worth five hundred poor ones. It is very common to
see seedlings of one year larger than those of two years,

126 THE NURSERY.

under different management ; and, in such a case, the year-
lings are worth twice as much as the others. A very good
plan is to thin out all the weakest plants when about four
or five inches high, leaving only those of vigorous habit
and large foliage. The prevailing error in growing apple
seedlings, and, I may add, all seedlings, is that of having
them too close together — usually three or four times as
many on the ground as there should be. Give them
plenty of room, good soil, and clean culture, and you will
have sfood stocks.

The Doucin is a distinct species of apple. The tree is
of medium size, bears small, sweet fruit, and reproduces
itself from seed. It is used for stocks for apple trees of
medium size, pyramids, or dwarf standards for gardens.
It is propagated almost exclusively from layers. (See fig.
63.) The plants to be propagated from are planted in a
rich, deep, friable soil, and cut back to within four to six
inches of the collar; the buds, on the part below the cut,
will, during the next season, produce strong shoots ; the
following spring the earth is drawn up around each plant
in the form of a mound, so that the whole of the stem and
the base of all the shoots will be covered at least three
inches deep ; during that season, all the shoots will pro-
duce roots, and should be separated from the mother
plant, or stool, as such plants are termed, in the fall. If
left on until spring, the frost would be likely to injure them.
The stools are then dressed, the soil around them is spaded
up and enriched with well-decayed manure ; and the fol-
lowing season another crop of shoots is produced, much
more numerous than the first, to be treated in the same
way. Every year these stool plants increase in size and
in the quantity of their productions, if well treated.
Another course, but not so good, is frequently pursued
when stocks are scarce. The shoots are layered by bend-
ing down, as described in layering, the first season of their
growth in July, and may be sufficiently rooted in the fall

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 127

to be transferred to nursery rows in the spring follow-
ing ; a year is thus saved, but the stocks are, of course,
much inferior. If earthed up in midsummer, they will be
partially rooted in the autumn, too, but not so well as if
bent down; for the bending has a tendency to stop the
sap at the point fastened to the ground, and hastens the
formation of roots. This stock may also be propagated
from root cuttings.

The Paradise. — This, also, is a distinct species of apple.
The tree is of very small size, never attaining over three
to four feet in height. It is used for stocks for dwarf
trees or bushes that occupy but a small space in the gar-
den. It is propagated in precisely the same manner as
that described for the Doucin.

2d. Stocks for the Pear. — The pear seedling and the
quince are the only two stocks on which the pear can be
advantageously worked to any considerable extent. The
Mountain Ash and the Thorn are occasionally used for
special purposes only.

Pear Seedlings. — The seeds are obtained by collecting
such fruits as can be had containing perfect seeds. Nearly
all the seeds used \\\ this country, of late years, have been
imported from Europe. Great care should be taken to
gather the fruits of hardy, healthy, vigorous trees only,
and the seeds should be full and plump. The seeds are
separated and washed, as described for apples. They arc
also saved and planted in a manner similar in all respects ;
but, in this country, it is a much more difficult matter to
succeed with pear seedlings than with the apple. This
difficulty is owing chiefly to a species of fungus, called
" leaf-blight," that attacks the leaves of the young plants,
very often before they have completed their first season's
growth. To obviate the difficulty which this malady pre-
sents, a vigorous growth should be obtained early in the
season. New soil, or that in which trees have not be-
fore been grown, should be selected — an old pasture is the

128 THE NURSERY.

best. The autumn before planting it should be trenched,
or subsoil-plowed, to the depth of two feet, for the pear
has long tap roots, and liberally enriched with a compost
of stable manure, leaf mould, or muck, and wood-ashes,
in about equal parts ; four inches deep of this, spread
over the surface before plowing, will be sufficient for any
ordinary soil. Lime should also be given liberally, unless
the soil be naturally and strongly calcareous. A soil pre-
pared thus in the fall, will require another plowing or
spading in the spring, to mix all the materials properly
with the soil, and fit it for the seeds. If the soil be very
tough, and not fit to be turned up, a thorough harrowing
or working w^ith the horse-hoe will do. Where large
quantities are grown, the drills may be the same distance
apart as that recommended for apples — three feet ; but if
only a few, twelve to eighteen inches will be sufficient, as
the cleaning can be done with the hoe. The seeds should
be scattered thinly, that every plant may have sufficient
space without any thinning. The end to aim. at, as before
remarked, is to get good growth, say eighteen to twenty
inches in height, and stout in proportion, before the first
of August. This can be done in any deeply-trenched or
plowed fresh soil, well prepared and manured, as described
above. I have been told that seedling pears, grown in a
frame, covered with whitewashed sash, and kept well
ventilated continually, escaped the "leaf-blight," whilst
all those grown in open ground, near by, were blighted ;
showing, as far as the experiment goes, that the sun's
heat has something to do with producing leaf-blight.
Pear seedlings should always be taken up in the fall, after
the first season's growth ; the largest selected for trans-
planting into the nursery, and the smaller to be put into
beds, to remain another season.

Quince Stocks are propagated with considerable success
by cuttings. These should be strong shoots, six inches to
a foot long, taken off close to the old wood, and, if pos-

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 129

sible, with a small portion attached, prepared as directed
in article on cuttings, early in the winter, and kept in pits
two or three feet below the surface of the soil, in a dry
place, until planting time, in spring. If practicable, plant
early in the fall, as soon as the wood is ripe, and cover
with leaves on setting in of winter, to prevent hard freez-
ing ; success will be more certain. They should be plant-
ed in a light) friable, deep soil, in rows eighteen inches to
two feet apart, four to six inches apart in the row, and so
deep that but a couple of buds remain above the surface.
The ground should be kept clean and mellow amongst
them all summer, and, if the cuttings were stout and long,
they will, in the autumn, be fit for taking up and prepar-
ing for planting into nursery rows the following spring.
The best and surest method of propagating the quince
stock, however, is by layers. The manner of layering is
that recommended for the Doucin and Paradise — by
earthing up (fig. 65). The stool plants should be set out
in a fine, rich, deep border of warm, friable soil, and be
about six feet apart, when designed to be permanent. As
each stool, by the system recommended, can only yield a
crop of plants every two years, there should be two sets,
so that an annual supply may be obtained. These stools,
in spite of the best treatment, become enfeebled in a few
years, and successive plantations must be made where
continual propagation is intended.

By the ordinary system of bending down the shoots,
and slitting, or even without the slitting, a crop may be
obtained every year — that is, the shoots of the current
season's growth may be layered in July or August ; but
no such stocks can be obtained as by the earthing up and
taking a crop every two years. This is the system recom-
mended to those who want first-rate quince stocks.

The very general lack of information in this country on
the subject of quince stocks for pears has given rise to a
great many misapprehensions and erroneous statements in
6*

130 THE NURSERY.

regard to them, both by horticultural writers and others.
At first it was said that the stocks used by the French, and
imported by nurserymen here, were the Portugal. Again,
it was discovered they were nothing more than the com-
mon apple quince ; consequently, a multitude of the apple
quinces have been worked, and sent out as " dwarf pears"
The slow and feeble growth of this variety unfits it entirely
for a stock for the pear, and only a very few varieties will
form a union with it that will last over three or four years.
Such trees cannot fail to give general dissatisfaction, and,
among people who know no better, create a prejudice
against quince stocks in general Indeed, this is the cause
why so much has been said about the pears on quince
being so short-lived.

The truth is, that the varieties used in France are nei-
ther the Apple nor the Portugal Quince, but vigorous
varieties that have been originated there, and found to
answer this purpose particularly well. The great requisite
of a quince stock for the pear is at/Vee, vigoroiis, and rapid
growth. A variety originated at the town of Angers, in
France, and extensively used, propagated, and sold there
as the Angers Quince, has proved to be an excellent stock.
It is a very rapid, vigorous grower, making strong shoots
three feet long, in one season. It has large foliage, resem-
bling the Portugal. In some parts of France, as in Nor-
mandy, it is known as the broad-leaved. There is another
variety, with smaller leaves, but of free, vigorous growth,
too, almost exclusively cultivated in some districts. Sev-
eral extensive nurserymen at Orleans, Paris, and elsewhere,
consider it superior to the broad-leaved, and especially for
very vigorous growing sorts. It is known as the Paris
or Fontenay Quince.

We have tried both extensively, and find but very little
difference, thus far, in the results obtained. In the first
edition of this work, I alluded to an upright growing
variety which then promised to be valuable, but has since

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 131

proved to be too feeble in its growth to be used advan-
tageously for a stock for fruit trees, so it is abandoned.

The Mountain Ash, it is said, makes a good stock for
certain varieties in very light, sandy soils, when neither
the pear nor quince succeeds well. It is propagated from
seed, and requires to be two years old before being
worked.

The Thorn. — Seedlings of our vigorous, native thorns
make good stocks when about three years old ; the seeds
require to be in the rot-heap one year before sowing. The
only cases in which it can be recommended are those in
which a soil may be so wet and cold as to be unfit for the
pear or quince ; but it is better to improve such soils by
draining, subsoil plowing, and by the addition of suitable
composts ; for even the thorn will fail in giving satisfac-
tion on a stiff, cold soil. I cannot recommend either the
Thorn or Mountain Ash as a stock for the pear, except as
a matter of fancy or experiment.

3d. Stocks for the Cherry. — The principal stocks used
for the cherry are the Mazzard, for standard orchard trees,
and the Mahaleb, for garden pyramids and dwarfs.

Mazzard Seedlings. — The Mazzard cherry is a lofty,
rapid-growing, pyramidal-headed tree. Its fruit is small,
dark brown or black, with a sprightly flavor, and slight
bitterness. It is the original type of all the heart
varieties.

The Mahaleb (Cerasus Mahaleb) is a small tree, with
glossy, deep-green foliage. The fruit is black, about the
size of a marrowfat pea, and quite bitter. It blossoms and
bears fruit when about three years old. It is consider-
ably cultivated in many parts of Europe as an orna-
mental lawn tree. There are few bearing trees in this
country yet ; consequently, a large proportion of the stocks
are imported, or grown from imported seeds.

The seeds are prepared, saved, sown, and managed, in
all respects, similar to the Mazzards, and are fit for trans-

132

THE NURSERY.

ferring to the nursery rows at the end of the first season's
growth.

The common Red Pie cherry, and the Small Morello,
make very good stocks for dwarf trees of the Duke and
Morello classes ; but the Hearts and Bigarreatis do not
take well on them. These are raised from seed in the
same way as the Mazzards and Mahalebs. I observe that
Western fruit growers are now recommending this stock
in preference to all others for that climate, on account of
its hardiness. I do not think, however, that it will be
used as a stock to any great extent.

Preparing and Saving the Seeds. — The fruit is allowed
to remain on the tree until thoroughly ripe. It is then
shaken or picked off, and put into tubs, where the pulp is
washed off until the stones are perfectly clean. They
are then spread out on boards, and turned over occasion-
ally until dry, when they are put away in boxes, mixed
with sand very slightly moist. A layer of sand is spread
in the bottom of the box, then a thin layer of the stones ;
next a layer of sand, and so on until the box is full. The
boxes are secured against vermin, and put away in a cool,
dry place, until needed for planting. If not planted in
the fall, they may be wintered in a cellar, or out of doors,
protected from rain by boards or other covering.

When to Plant. — If circumstances were favorable, all
seeds would be better planted in the fall, or immediately
after their maturity. Nature, in her course, indicates
this to be a general law ; but in cultivation, this must de-
pend on circumstances. The ground may not be in readi-
ness. It may be so wet and heavy, that seeds would be
so saturated with moisture during the winter as to lose
their vitality, or the ground might become so beaten
down and compact with fall, winter, and early spring
rains, as to make it almost impossible for the young plants
to make their way through it. All these things are to be
considered in deciding the proper time to sow seeds. If

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 133

the soil be very light and porous, cherry seeds may be
sown as soon as gathered ; if the contrary, it should be
deferred until spring ; but they germinate early, and at a
low temperature, so that it is necessary to keep them
pretty dry and cool, and get them into the ground at the
earliest practicable moment. We find it quite difficult to
keep them properly, and yet prevent them from germi-
nating before the ground is dry enough to receive them.

How to Plant. — For cherry seeds the ground should be
light, in a good, fertile state, but not strongly manured.
The seeds are sown in drills, as recommended for apple
and pear seeds; and so thin as to give each plant space to
grow in, without being crowded by others. In this way,
and with clean summer culture, the stocks will all be
large enough, at the end of the first season's growth, to be
taken up and prepared for planting in nursery rows the
following spring.

4th. Stocks for the Peach. — As a general thing, the
peach is worked on its own stocks in this country. The
stones should be stratified during the winter, by being
placed in boxes, with alternate layers of sand, or light
earth, and be kept in a situation exposed to the frost ;
unless this is done, they will not germinate the following
spring ; they require more moisture and exposure to open
their hard shells, and induce germination, than any other
fruit seeds. They should be examined a week or two
before planting time, and if they exhibit no signs of vege-
tation, more moisture should be given them ; if they have
been kept dry for a month or two before being stratified,
they may require to be cracked. Nurserymen have an
instrument for this purpose, resembling nut-crackers,
which operates with great rapidity. When cracked,
they may be mixed with moist earth, and germinated in
a warm place. The growth of every one so germinated
can be depended on, and tho rows will be regular. As
the seeds are planted where the trees remain until trans-

134 THE NURSERY.

ferred to the garden or orchard, it is a very good plan to
nip off the point of the young root protruded from the
seed ; this makes it ramify, so that, when taken up, the
trees have fine branched and fibrous roots, instead of
long tap- roots, as is very generally the case.

Planting. — The seeds should be put in the ground as
soon in the spring as it is in a fit state to be worked, or as
soon thereafter as possible. A line is stretched, and holes
made with a dibble to receive the seed ; it should be put
in with the root downwards, and be covered not over one-
fourth of an inch deep.

Plum Stocks are used for the peach in soils of a stiff,
adhesive character, in which the peach does not succeed.
In England, the peach is worked almost exclusively on
the plum, as it suits their moist climate and soil better.
In France, the hard-shell almond is used almost exclusively
on dry, and the plum on damp soils. Almond stocks are
raised in the same way as the peach.

Dwarf Peach-Trees are produced by working on the
same stocks recommended for dwarfing the plum. Some
time ago, a French journal gave a very interesting account
of experiments made in dwarfing the peach and plum, by
a Dr. Bretonneau, of Tours, France. He had succeeded
in producing very pretty dwarf plum -and peach-trees on
a dwarf plum, indigenous to this country (Prunus pumila).
He exhibited beautiful prolific dwarf trees of the Green
Gage plum on the sloe, and was making farther experi-
ments with the dwarf almond as a stock for peaches.

These subjects are all worthy the attention of those who
have the leisure for experiments. The art of growing a
large collection of fruits on a small spot of ground is of
great importance to curious and tasteful people living in
towns and villages.

Stocks for the Apricot and Nectarine. — Everything
that has been said of peach stocks applies, with equal
force and propriety, to these two trees.

PROPAGATION OF STOCKS. 135

5th. Stocks for the Plum. — It is difficult, in this country,
to get good plum stocks. If seeds be taken promiscu-
ously from any variety that is to be had, as is done with
most other trees, the probability is that, of the seedlings,
not one in 500 will be suitable for a stock. I have seen
bushel* of seeds planted that were said to have been col-
lected from strong growing trees ; but out of the tens of
thousands of seedlings produced from them, not 100 were
ever worked, or fit to be. It is not only necessary to ob-
tain seeds from vigorous-growing, healthy trees, but from
a species or variety that reproduces itself from seed.

The Horse Plum, an oval, purple, freestone sort, with
vigorous downy shoots, reproduces itself from seed, and
makes good stocks. On a suitable, well-prepared soil, its
seedlings often attain two feet or more in height in one
season, and are then fit for the nursery rows. They re-
quire a rich, substantial soil, prepared as recommended
for pear seeds. Other vigorous sorts have been recom-
mended in various parts of the country, but, on trial,
they have been found quite inferior to the horse plum,
and, as a general thing, worthless. The " black-knot," a
fungus which infests the plum, is now so prevalent in this
country, that we regard- it as unsafe to take seeds pro-
miscuously gathered ; hence we now import our plum
stocks from Europe, where this disease does not exist. It
is doubtful, however, whether the seed will inherit the
disease, but it is well to be on the safe side.

The Canada, or Wild Plum, which abounds in Ohio,
Michigan, and other Western States, is a distinct species,
and reproduces itself from seed. Some of the seed-
lings grow extremely rapid, making fine stocks, in one
year, on any good soil. They continue in a thrifty, grow-
ing state until late in the autumn ; but they should not
be worked above the ground in the usual way, as their
growth does not keep pace with the species to which most
of our cultivated sorts belong. The best way to manage

136 THE NURSERY.

them is to take the yearling seedlings, whip-graft them
on the collar, and set them out at once in the nursery
rows ; they will make good trees for planting out in three
years. The stock is all below the surface of the ground,
and, in time, the graft sends out roots, and becomes, in a
great measure, independent of the stock. Where the
seedlings are not large enough for grafting the first sea-
son, they may be set out in the nursery, and allowed to
grow one season, and then the earth can be removed from
the collar until the graft is inserted, and then drawn up.
This we find, by later experience, the better method, and
practice it exclusively. To procure strong stocks for
standard trees, of weak-growing sorts, like the G-reen
Gage, such thrifty varieties as the Imperial Gage and
Smithes Orleans may be grafted on this native species,
and in two or three years they will make stocks strong
enough for any purpose. The French use several natural
species that are produced from seed — the St. Julien,
large and small (Brussels of the English), and the Damas
noir, large and small. The first is generally used for
stocks for apricots and peaches as well as plums. We
find none of these superior in vigor to the horse plum,
but they are worked more successfully. In England, the
Brussels, Brompton, and Muscle stocks are used, propa-
gated from both seeds and layers. For small-sized gar-
den trees, either dwarf standards or pyramids, the cherry
plum, " Myrobolan " of the French catalogues, makes a
very good stock.

It is a natural species, and can, therefore, be produced
true from seed. It maintains a vigorous growth all sum-
mer, and may be worked in July, August, or September.
It may also be propagated from layers.

The Sloe is also used to some extent where very small
trees are wanted ; and we have no doubt some native spe-
cies, as, for instance, the Beach and Chickasaw plums, which
are small trees, will make good dwarf stocks. Handsome

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 137"

small-sized garden trees may be raised on the smaller
kinds of the Canada Plum. The first year's growth, and
even the second, is quite vigorous on them ; but after
that the vigor diminishes, and the trees become quite
prolific. This and the Cherry Plum are principal stocks
for dwarfing.

Plums for seeds should ripen well on the tree ; they are
then gathered, the pulp washed off, and the seeds dried
and put away in boxes of -sand, in alternate layers, as
recommended for cherries. They may be sowed in fall or
spring, as circumstances, already mentioned, will admit.

Nearly all plums used for stocks may be propagated by
layers. Mother plants, or stools, are planted out and cut
back as recommended for Paradise, etc. ; the shoots of the
previous season's growth are pegged down flat in the
spring, and two inches of earth drawn over them. Every
bud on these layers will produce a shoot that, generally,
will be well enough rooted in the fall to be separated from
the stool, and planted out into nursery rows the following
spring. These layered shoots are cut off close to the old
plant, and the upright shoots produced during the pre-
vious season may be again pegged down.

The stools, or mother plants, managed in this way, re-
quire the best treatment to maintain their vigor, that a
supply of strong shoots may be produced every season fit
to lay down in the spring. Weak, slender shoots, unfit
to layer, should be cut out early in the season, to aid the
growth of those intended for use.

SECTION 3. — TRANSPLANTING STOCKS.

This comprehends three separate operations — taking
up, dressing or pruning, and replanting / but before
touching on the details of these operations, it may be well
to consider

1st. The age at which Stocks should be transplanted. —
On this point there seems to be a diversity of opinion.

138 THE XURSERY.

The very general one is, that they should remain where
they have been propagated until they are large enough to
be worked ; a great many plans are, therefore, suggested
for wintering seedlings, and especially the pear. The ex-
perience of the best cultivators everywhere is, that seed-
ling stocks in general should be transplanted when one
year old. It may be urged against this that some seed-
lings are so small when one year old, as not to be worth
transplanting ; so feeble, that more care and culture would
be required, before they could be worked, than they are
worth. In reply, it can only be said that such feeble pro-
ductions are only fit to be thrown away ; because the seeds
must have been defective, or the soil and culture bad ;
and stocks raised from poor seeds, or stunted by bad soil
and culture, will never make sound, healthy, vigorous, nor
long-lived trees. There may be some exceptions to this,
but the rule will generally hold good.

When seedlings remain longer than one year in the seed-
bed, they grow up slender and weak ; one more vigorous
than its neighbors will ruin all around it. Then the roots
do not ramify, but continue to lengthen, without forming
laterals or fibres ; and when removed, and reduced to the
necessary dimensions, they receive a severe check; but at
one year the check is very light ; they at once form lateral
roots, and instead of being drawn up tall and slender, they
become stout and well-proportioned. The best pear-grow-
ers in Europe, and even in this country, would scarcely
take, as a gift, two-year seedling pears from the seed-bed,
unless in case of absolute necessity.

The proper plan is to take up all seedling stocks, and all
layers sufficiently rooted to bear separation from the stool,
and all cuttings that stand close, at one year old, and sort
and arrange into separate classes, in this way : in one class
put the strongest, those fit for immediate use, either to be
grafted on the root, or set in nursery rows, and be budded
the summer following ; in another class, put such as may

TKANSPL ANTING STOCKS. 139

require to stand one year in the nursery rows, to be fit for
working ; and in the third class, such as are too weak to be
put in the nursery rows, but will require to bo " bedded
out;" that is, set closely in beds by themselves, where they
can remain for one or two years, until they are large and
strong enough for root grafting or for the nursery rows.
Unless in the case of stocks scarce and difficult to procure,
this third class had better be thrown away at once ; as it
Avill cost as much to nurse them as to raise fine stocks
from the seed.

2d. Time to take up. — There is but one proper time to
take up all seedlings and rooted layers for stocks, and that
is the fall ; and for several reasons. The first is, they
are all liable to injury by the frosts of winter ; seedlings
have no side roots to hold them in the ground, and layers
are near the surface, so that the freezing and thawing
draw them up ; the roots arc thus exposed, and seriously
injured. The second is, they can be dressed during the
winter in the cellar, and be ready for planting in the spring.
When taken up, they can be laid closely in by the roots
in the soil, in a dry place, and covered over so as to
exclude frost. When out-door work is over, they can be
uncovered, taken into the cellar and dressed, and care-
fully laid in again by the roots, in the same place, which
should, of course, in the mean time, be protected from
frost. The third reason is, that when seedlings are taken
up in the fall, the ground can bo prepared for another
crop ; and this is of considerable importance. In the
case of layers, the stools or mother plants can be manured,
dressed, and put in order for another season's growth;
and this, also, is important. Such arc some of the ad-
vantages, or, in f-ict, the necessities of taking up stocks in
the fall. In the case of the quince, however, it frequently
occurs that, when the layers have been removed in the
fall, a severe winter kills the stool plants, unless well pro-
tected with a coverino; of earth.

140 THE NTJJRSERY.

3d. How to take up. — Seedlings are very easily taken
up, in two ways, without in the least mutilating the
roots. If one person does the work, he should begin at
one end of the row, and, with a common spade, or, which
is better, one with three strong prongs, a foot long and
an inch and a half wide, dig under the plants without
cutting the roots, and, as fast a^ they are loosened below,
pull them out ; and in this way proceed. Another and
quicker way is, for two men to loesen the plants, each on
opposite sides of the row, inserting a forked spade as
deep as the roots go, while another follows and pulls
out the plants. When the ground is quite soft, this way
answers very well ; but if dry, or hard, the first is better.

In nurseries where very large quantities of seedlings
are to be taken up at once, a "-Tree-digger " (sec Imple-
ments), drawn by horses, is used. The "digger" passes
under the row at a depth sufficient to avoid injury to the
roots, and loosens them so that they can be readily pulled,
cither the whole, or a part.

Layers require more care and caution. A trench must
be opened all around the layered branches, deep enough
to go quite below the roots, and in an oblique manner, so
as to undermine them. "Where the branches are pegged
down, the pegs must be taken out, and the layer is then
separated between the rooted part and the stool, and
gently taken from the earth. Especial care must be taken
not to split those that have been layered by incision ;
their removal must be done slowly and cautiously.

Mound Layers are easier separated ; the earth is simply
removed from the base of the rooted branches, and they
are then separated within an inch or BO of the stem.

Layered Branches. — When the young rooted plants are
produced from the eyes of a buried shoot or branch, the
pegs are removed, the whole branch dug under, and com-
pletely loosened and separated from the stool ; the young
plants are then taken off, one by one, close to their base.

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS.

141

4th. Pruning, or Dressing Stocks. — The objects always
in view, in performing this operation, are — to remove in-
jured or broken roots ; to reduce the tap-root, that it may

produce laterals ;
to reduce the
stems to a proper
proportion with
the roots, and put
them in a condi-
tion that will in-
sure a vigorous
growth.

Seedlings, taken
from the seed-bed,
have always a
long tap-root, with
few or no laterals ;
and as trees with
such roots are un-
fit for safe trans-
plantation, it is
necessary to take
measures to
change their char-
acter. We there-
fore remove the
small tapering
portion of the
root, as at fig. 8G,
A, and this in-
the produc-
tion of lateral or
rcots,

near the surface
of the ground. The pear roots, especially, are inclined
more to descend in a straight line than to spread ; and

Figs. 86 and 87.— SEEDLING STOCKS AND
CUTTINGS.

Fig. 86, a seedling stock, one year's growth, as it
comes from the seed-bed ; the line at A shows the
shortening of the tap-root ; that at J5, the shortening .
of the stem before replanting. Fig. 87, a quince cut
ting ; the cross lines on the stem and roots indicate spreading
the pruning before replanting.

142

THE NURSERY.

unless they are well cut back when young, they are
always difficult to transplant safely afterwards. Roots
that descend like the prongs of a fork are usually desti-
tute of fibres, whilst those that spread out horizontally,
or near the surface, are well furnished with fibres, that
r.ot only make trees easily transplanted, but inclined
to early fruitfulness. This operation on the roots, it is
obvious, destroys the natural balance or proportion that
existed between them and the tops. Hence the
necessity for shortening the stem in a corresponding
manner. But even if the roots were not shortened,
the stems should be, in order to obtain a vigorous
growth. The very removal of the plant lessens the power
of the roots to absorb and convey nutriment ; and on this
account, if no other, the stem- should be reduced by way
of regulating the supply and demand. We sometimes
see young stocks planted out without any shortening of
the stem; and the result is, they scarcely make any growth
the first season — the roots are barely able to absorb
enough to keep ..them alive. If one-half the stem had
been cut away, the remaining buds would have received
such a supply of food as would have produced a vigorous
growth. It is a pretty good rule, therefore, to reduce the
stems of seedlings one-third to one-half \ as at B (7, fig.
86. But there are exceptions to this. For instance, a
stock with a very large and strong root, and a short,
stout, close-jointed stem, well matured, and furnished with
plump, prominent buds, requires very little, if any, short-
ening of the stem ; and again, others are just the reverse
— tall, slender, and feeble, having been suffocated in the
seed-bed. Such as these require to be shortened more
than half, perhaps two-thirds.

Layers, or Cuttings (fig. 87), are in a different situation
from seedlings, and require, therefore, different treatment. *
They have no tap-roots, but masses of fibres ; and these
fibres, being more or less injured by exposure, should be

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 143

cut off, to make way for new ones. The shortening of
the stems depends entirely on the size and condition of
the roots. If well rooted, and the roots be in good con-
dition, they may be left a foot long; if poorly rooted,
they should be cut back to six or eight inches. This ap-
plies equally to the layers of the quince, Paradise, Doucln,
plums, etc.

5th. Planting stocks in the nursery rows where they
are to be budded. — The first consideration which this
operation suggests is the condition of the soil. Under
the head of soils, sufficient has been said respecting the
modes of deepening, draining, and enriching • and it is
only necessary to say here that, where stocks are planted,
the soil should be at once deep, dry, and rich / for no
such thing as sound, vigorous fruit-trees can be raised on
a poor, shallow, or wet soil. The various means of im-
provement have been already pointed out and explained.
It may, however, be well to remark that ground may be
too rich, and induce a rank, watery growth, that would
either result in death at the final transplanting into the
garden or orchard, or in a very feeble and sickly growth
after it. We see frequent illustrations of this in the case
of trees raised in old, worn-out nurseries, where rapid
growth has been forced by powerfully-stimulating ma-
nures, and in rich alluvial prairie soils and river bottoms.
These rank, pithy, soft productions, are very attractive
to tne eye ; but they suffer so much by removal, no mat-
ter how well treated, that they seldom fail to disappoint
the planter. Manures used should be well decomposed,
and incorporated with the soil, if possible, the autumn
before planting. A tree is not like a cabbage or lettuce.
The tenderness and succulency of these constitute their
great merit ; but the wood of a tree must be firm,
short-jointed, and mature; and these requisites are al-
ways attained by a moderate and natural, not a forced,
growth.

144 THE NURSERY.

Planting each species in the soil best adapted to it. —
Where there are different characters of soils in a nursery,
to be planted with a general assortment of stocks, it is
important to give to each that which is best adapted to
its nature ; thus the pear, apple, and plum should have
the richer, deeper, and more compact, or that with most
clay. The plum, in particular, succeeds well on a pretty
stiff clay. The cherry and peach should have the lightest
and warmest. The quince, the Paradise, and Doucin do
not require such a deep soil as the pear and the common
apple seedlings, because their roots are fibrous, and always
remain near the surface ; but it must not be inferred from
this that a shallow soil suits these best.

6th. When to Plant. — In parts of the country where
the winter is long and severe, or where freezing and thaw-
ing are frequent, fall planting cannot be successful ; as the
plants, having no hold of the ground, are drawn out and
injured; and besides, if the ground is somewhat clayey
and tenacious, the heavy rains that occur early in the
spring will make it so compact that air will not penetrate
it, and the young roots will form slowly and feebly.
When neither of these difficulties is to be feared, fall
planting is decidedly preferable. Spring planting should
be done at the earliest moment the condition of the ground
will admit; which is, when dry enough to crumble into
fine particles when turned over with the spade.

7th. Distance to Plant. — We are all in the habit of plant-
ing quite too closely in the nursery ; the consequence is
that the trees are not well proportioned. Frequently, the
standards are as large at six feet from the ground, as at
the collar ; weak, and top-heavy, so that sticks have to be
used to support them, even when four years old. Pyram-
idal trees are out of the question where such close plant-
ing is practised — the growth is always forced to the top.
Nature gives us numerous and striking illustrations of the
effect of close planting. We see, in a natural group or

TRANSPLANTING STOCKS. 145

thicket, trees running up forty or fifty feet, of an equal di-
ameter, and without a branch ; and if one such tree were
left exposed, by the removal of those around it, the first,
high wind would blow it down. On the outskirts of this
group or thicket, or perhaps completely isolated, in the
center of a field, we see another tree of the same species
branched almost from the ground, with a diameter at
the base twice as great as at half its height, and tapering
upward with beautiful regularity, capable of resisting
a hurricane. To raise stout, well-proportioned trees, we
must give them plenty of room, that they may have the
advantage of air all around, and not at the top only.

There is scarcely a nursery to be found in which the
trees are not grown too close — three or four on the space
that one should occupy. There is, to be sure, great econo-
my in close planting ; for five hundred trees can be grown
on the space that one hundred should occupy, and with
nearly as little labor ; but it would really be better for
people to pay twice or three times as much for their trees,
if grown so far apart that the air and light would have
free access to them in all parts, and give them stout, well-
proportioned forms. A reform in this respect is much
needed ; but it cannot be expected until purchasers be-
come discriminating and intelligent on the subject.

The distance at which stocks should be planted in the
nursery rows is governed entirely by circumstances. If
it is intended to use a cultivator between the rows, they
should not be less than three and a half feet apart. If
spade and hoe culture be intended, two and a half to
three feet will be sufficient. Where the trees are to be
removed at the age of one year, one foot apart in the rows
is sufficient ; but if they are to remain until two, three, or
four years, they should be eighteen inches to two feet. If
removed at two years, eighteen inches is enough ; but
where standards remain three or four years, until they
have heads formed, and pyramids remain until they have
7

146 THE NURSERY.

formed two or three tiers of lateral branches, two feet, or
two and a half, is little enough. Indeed, when pyramids
remain for three years, there should be a clear space —
three feet — on all sides. The usual nursery practice is,
rows three and a half feet apart ; trees in rows, one to
one and a half feet apart.

Dwarf standards require less space than full stand-
ards, and dwarf bushes still less. The stocks intended
for these different classes of trees should be planted sepa-
rately. In sorting the stocks, at the time of dressing, the
larger should be used for full standards, and the smaller
for low or dwarf standards.

8th. Mode of Planting. — The square or plot of ground
for each class of stocks being ready, a line is stretched
along one side, and a trench opened with the spade, deep
and wide enough to hold the roots ; the plant is then held
against the side of the trench, next the line, by one man,
whilst the earth is filled in by another ; when about half
the earth is in, it is trodden down pretty firmly by the
foot, and the remainder filled in. As buds are usually
inserted on the north side of the stocks, they should in-
cline, if at all, slightly to the south. Good pulverized
surface soil should always be put upon the roots, to induce
the immediate formation of young fibres. During the
planting, the roots must be carefully guarded from ex-
posure. A few only should be taken out of the ground
at a time. When there are but few fibrous roots, pud-
dling in thin mud is useful, otherwise not. Some nursery-
men open the trenches with a plow instead of the spade ;
and some plant all kinds of stock with the dibble. We
do not practise either.

Planting Hoot Grafts. — The quickest mode of plant-
ing small root grafts is to stretch a line along the ground
to be planted, and, with a dibble, make the holes, and
press the earth in around the plants. This dibble should
be twelve to eighteen inches long, about two inches in

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 147

diameter, pointed and shod with iron. Fig. 88 represents
one made of the handle of a spade. Figure 89 shows a
dibble, such as is sold by the dealers in implements. It
is made from a stick, with a natural curve at one end, to
conveniently fit the hand, and is furnished
at the other end with an iron point. One
person will plant as many in this way
as four could by opening trenches with
spades. But where the plants are dib-
bled in, the ground must be in the best
condition — perfectly dry, and finely pul-
verized.

Treatment of Stocks after Planting. — Fig. 88.—
The principal care which stocks require Dp^E
between the time they are planted and ROOT- Fig. 89.—

., . , , -, -. , . -. , GRAFTS. DIBBLE.

the time they are budded is to keep the
ground about them clear of weeds, and in a friable,
porous condition on the surface, by frequent stirring. A
good rule is to run the cultivator or horse-hoe through
them once a week. The success of budding depends, in a
great measure, on the condition of the stocks. They
must be in a thrifty, growing state, and this can only be
obtained with good treatment. Having now considered,
in as much detail as seems necessary, the propagation and
transplanting of stocks into the nursery rows, we proceed
with

SECTION 4. — THE BUDDING, GRAFTING, AND MANAGE-
MENT OF TREES IN THE NURSERY,

The simplest and clearest method of treating this part
of the subject, seems to be that of considering, separate-
ly, each year's operations in succession.

THE FIRST YEAR. — Strong yearling seedlings of the
apple, pear, cherry, and plum, say one-fourth of an inch
and upwards in diameter, and well-rooted layers of the

148 THE NURSERY.

quince, Paradise, and Doucin, of the same size, planted
in the spring, in a good soil, and kept under good, clean
culture, will, as a general thing, be in a fit state for bud-
ding in July, August, or September, following. The
budding may, therefore, be considered as the first season's
work. The details of this operation may be divided for
consideration as follows :

1st. Time for Budding. 2d. Preparation of the
Stocks. 3d. Insertion of the JBuds. 4th. Untying.

1st. The time for budding each species or class of fruits
depends upon its habits of growth. Such as cease to
grow early in the season, must be budded early, as soon
as mature buds can be had; because it can only be done
while the stocks are in a free, growing state, full of sap.
Such as grow until late in the- autumn, must be budded
late, otherwise the new layers of wood, formed after the
insertion of the bud, would grow over and destroy it, or
the bud would be forced into a premature growth towards
autumn, which, in fruit-trees, should always be avoided.
The common sorts of plum terminate their growth early
in the season, and are therefore, budded early, whether
with plums, peaches, or apricots; at Rochester, usually
about the last of July, or beginning of August. The na-
tive or Canada plum, and the Cherry plum (Myrobalan),
grow freely until late in the fall, and may be budded in
the latter end of August or beginning of September.
Pears on pear stocks are usually budded here in July, in
anticipation of the leaf-blight, which stops their growth
when it attacks them. Where no such thing as this is ap-
prehended, they should not be budded before the middle
of August, as the buds are not generally mature until that
time. Apples on free stocks, and on the Paradise and
Doucin, may be budded as soon as the buds are mature,
which is usually, here, about the first to the middle of Au-
gust. Cherries on free Mazzard stocks, as soon as buds
are ripe ; here, about the first of August. Pears on quince,

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 149

and Cherries on Mahaleb, about the first of September,
and from that to the middle of the month; as the quince
and Mahaleb grow late, especially the latter. Peach
stocks should always be budded the same season the
seeds are planted, and, as they grow rapidly, until very
late, are not usually budded until between the first and
middle of September. The budding period varies in dif-
ferent seasons. In a dry, warm season, the young wood
matures earlier, and stocks cease to grow sooner, and are,
therefore, budded earlier than in a cool, moist season, that
prolongs the growth of the stocks and retards the ma-
turity of the buds. Stocks growing feebly, require to be
budded earlier than those growing freely. It is necessary
to keep an eye to all these points.

The destruction of insects must be strictly attended to.
An army of slugs may devour the foliage of the pear
and cherry, and even the plum, in a day or two, and pre-
vent their being worked that season. The aphis, too, fre-
quently appears in such multitudes as to check growth.
Dry lime or ashes thrown on the slugs, will kill them ;
and strong soap-suds, or tobacco water so strong as to
assume the color of strong beer, will kill the aphis.

2d. Preparation of the Stocks. — This consists in re-
moving such lateral shoots from the stock as may be
likely to obstruct the insertion of the bud. Our practice
is to do this at the moment of budding, one person doing
the work in advance of the budders. If done a few days
previous, and several 'shoots are removed, it checks the
growth of the stocks, and they do not work so well. It
might answer very well to do it two or three weeks pre-
vious, so that they might recover from the check before
being budded.

3d. Insertion of the Bud. — Having treated so fully of
the manner of preparing and inserting the buds in the
article on budding, nothing farther need be said on these
points here.

150 THE NURSEBT.

In free stocks, the bud should be inserted within three
or four inches of the ground.

In some parts of the West — Wisconsin, Illinois — and
some other places, certain rapid, late-growing, and rather
tender varieties are liable to be winter-killed if budded
close to the ground ; probably by the sudden thawing of
that part, caused by the reflection of heat from the ground.
In view of such a difficulty, it may be well enough to bud
sufficiently high to avoid this, provided a stock known to
be perfectly hardy can be obtained ; but, as a general thing,
low budding makes the best trees. All dwarf stocks
should be budded as close to the surface of the ground
as it is possible ; and even some of the earth may be re-
moved and put back when the budding is done. The
necessity for this lies in the fact that all dwarf stocks
should be wholly below the ground when finally planted
out in the garden or orchard.

4th. Untying the Buds. — In ten days or a fortnight
after the buds are inserted, they should be examined, and
such as have failed may be budded again if the stocks
continue to grow. In some cases, it may be necessary,
and particularly with cherries, to loosen the buds and tie
them over again ; as rapid growth will cause the string to
cut the bark before the bud has completely united, or is
fit to be untied. This seldom occurs, however ; as a gen-
eral thing, the strings may be removed in three weeks to
a month after the budding; and they should never be
left on over the winter, as moisture lodges around them,
to the detriment of the bud. As soon as the budding is
done, the ground should be worked over with the culti-
vator or forked spade. The first season's management
of stocks too small for budding consists simply in keep-
ing the soil clean and mellow, and in guarding against
the attacks of insects.

The treatment of root grafts the first season consists in
clearing and loosening the ground, the removal of suckers

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 151

from the roots as fast as they appear, and pinching early
any strong side shoots likely to weaken the leader.

SECOND YEAK. — Where the buds failed the previous
season, the stocks should now be whip-grafted near the
surface of the ground. They will be but little behind the
buds, and will make nearly as good trees, if neatly done.
Plums and cherries must be done before, or as soori as the
buds begin to swell (say in March, here) ; pears and ap-
ples may be <lone later. The second-sized stocks, planted
last season, and intended to be budded this, should, it' in a
feebly growing or stunted condition, be cut back to within
two or three inches of the surface of the ground. This
will give the roots new vigor, and thrifty shoots will be
made, by budding time, that will work more easily and
successfully than the old stock. In a month or so after
being cut down, all the shoots but the strongest one
should be removed. The stocks budded last season are
headed down to within three or four inches of the bud,
just as the leaves are beginning to appear ; and all buds
starting into growth on the stock, either below or above
them, are rubbed off.

Treatment of the growing bud consists in keeping all
shoots that appear on the stock rubbed off. If side shoots
appear early, and are likely to contract the growth of the
leader, they should be pinched off. Any that assume a
reclining or crooked habit should be tied up to the stock,
or to a support, which may be a wooden pole, four feet
long, sunk a foot in the ground, at the root of the stock ;
both the stock and growing shoot should be fastened to
it (fig. 90), but not so close as to impede the growth.
This is only necessary with certain weak, irregular grow-
ing sorts. In August, the portion of the stock left above
the bud, at the heading down in the spring, should be re-
moved with a sloping cut, close and smooth, as at A (fig.
90), at the highest point of union between the bud and
stock. The new layers of wood made after this time

152 THE NURSERY.

cover the wound before growth ceases in the fall. Side
shoots, when they appear, must be checked, if too vigor-
ous, by pinching off their ends, but not entirely removed,
as they assist in giving size and strength to the lower
part of the body of the young tree. The peach almost
invariably produces numerous side branches
the first season, and it is a very common but
very erroneous practice to prune these all
off in midsummer. The proper course is to
maintain a uniform vigor amongst them by
pinching, and to prevent any from encroach-
ing on the leading shoot ; in this way we
get stout, well-proportioned trees. This
brings us to the end of the second year, and
gives us young trees of one year's growth.
Peach trees should always be planted out at
this age, and all trees intended for training
in particular forms ; but as this part of the
subject will be considered under the head
. . of " Selection of Trees" we will proceed to

A young budded J

tree in its first the course of management for the

growth, THIRD YEAR.— We commence this year

supported by a J

stake. The line with trees of one year s growth, and the first

at A indicates pOmt is to determine what form is to be

the cutting away .

of the stock close given them — whether tall or awarj stand-
to the bud. ards^pyramids, bushes, or espaliers. Having

settled these matters, we have but to follow up the proper
course to accomplish the desired ends. It may be well to
take each of these forms in succession, and point out the
necessary management under various circumstances.

1st. Standards. — Until very lately, trees of all sorts,
and for every situation, were grown as tall standards, with
naked trunks, six, and even eight feet high. Indeed, it
appeared as though an impression existed amongst people
that a .tree was not in reality a tree, nor worthy of a place
on their grounds, if it had not this particular form. Lat-

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 153

terly however, since fruit-tree culture has become more
practised, and somewhat better understood, this impres-
sion has been gradually losing ground, and in all parts of
the country low trees are finding advocates.

Experience is beginning to teach people that, whilst tall
standards in an orchard possess the single advantage of
admitting the operations of the plow under the branches,
low standards are much more secure against the numerous
fatal diseases that attack the trunks, are much more ac-
cessible for the performance of all the necessary details
of management and for the gathering of the fruit, and
are less exposed to damage from high winds.

These are all very important advantages, certainly ; but
the most important one is the safety of the tree against
diseases of the trunk. In all parts of this country we
have a powerful sun in summer, and in winter and spring
sudden and violent changes from one extreme to another;
and experience has shown that the trunk and large
branches, being fully exposed to all external influences,
are generally the parts first attacked with disease. Cul-
tivators are, of course, at liberty to choose for themselves;
but, except to meet the wants of some particular circum-
stances, no standard tree should have a branchless stem
above Jive feet in height ; four is preferable for all, ex-
cept orchards of common apples for cider or stock. Trees
with heads only four feet from the ground are always
easy of access, and the natural spread of the branches af-
fords a great protection' to the trunk at all seasons. Nur-
serymen should by all means encourage, by precept and
example, the cultivation of low-headed trees.

Starting with the yearling trees for standards, we
examine the habit of the variety, whether stont or slen-
der; whether branched, as many varieties are the first
season, or without branches. Before proceeding to the
operation of cutting down to increase the size of the
trunk, the reader is referred to the principles and prac-

154

THE NURSERY.

tices of pruning in the first part of the work. (Part I,
Chapter V.) No pruning should be attempted for the
attainment of any special purpose without having first
carefully studied these.

If slender, and without side branches, as
they should be cut back twelve
to twenty inches, as at A'
this removes the buds that
would push first, and retains
the sap in the lower parts,
which will give a stout body.
The taller and more slender
the tree, and the smaller the
buds, the farther it becomes
necessary to cut back. In
fact, some very feeble-grow-
ing sorts must be cut back
until within a foot or less of
the base. During the sum-
mer, trees cut back in this way
may produce lateral shoots
on the greater part of their
length. These must not be
pruned off, but kept in a
uniform size and vigor by
pinching any that threaten to
exceed their proper bounds.
The shoots immediately below
the leader must be watched,

as they are always inclined to and C, the cutting back for pyra-

push too strongly. ™^s bLklor^a^or^ulrs!

A tree thus CUt back, and Fig. 92, a young tree once cut back
the Side branches regulated to form trunk for a standard.

by pinching, will, in the fall, have a stout body, and pre-
sent the appearance of fig. 92. Where the yearlings are
short and stout, and are furnished with a few lateral

Figs. 91 and 92.

91, a yearling tree; to the

BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC. 155

shoots, cutting back may be unnecessary. The largest
of the side shoots may be pruned off wholly ; and the
smajl ones left to retain the sap in the lower part of the
stem, at least until midsummer, when new ones will have
been produced. There are certain stout-growing, branch-
ing varieties of all the fruits that require no shortening,
and very little pruning of any kind, to form stout trunks,
when not planted too close.

Dwarf Standards. — The management of yearling buds
to produce these, is similar to that described for standards,
varying it always to suit the particular habit of the spe-
cies or variety ; tall, slender-growing sorts require cutting
back, and the suppression of branches at the top ; but
many varieties of cherries and plums, some very stout-
growing pears and apples, and all apricots and peaches,
may commence the formation of heads this season. The
stem is cut at the point desired, two to three feet from the
ground, to form the head on ; and three or four of the
stoutest shoots, growing in opposite directions, are pre-
served, whilst all others, close to them, are pinched off
when two or three inches long ; side branches are allowed
to remain that season on the stem to strengthen it, but
they are kept short and regular by pinching. In the fall
these trees will be fit for the final planting out, whilst
those of weaker habit will require another season, if heads
are wanted.

Pyramids. — Yearling trees, intended for pyramids, are
cut back so far as to insure the production of vigorous
side branches within six or eight inchos of the stock. The
habits of growth of the species and variety must be care-
fully taken into account. Some are disposed, from the
beginning, to form lateral branches ; and others require
vigorous measures to force them to do so. As examples,
the Bloodgood pear is very much inclined to branch the
first year, whilst the Louise Bonne de Jersey and Duchess
d'Angouleme seldom do so, unless in some way the grow-

156 THE NURSERY.

ing point be checked. So it is in cherries ; most of the
Dukes and Morellos are inclined to produce laterals the
first season ; but the free-growing sorts, Hearts and JBi-
garreaus, rarely do so, unless the point is checked early in
the season. So it is in all the fruits, and therefore no gen-
eral rule can be given ; but the appearance of the tree indi-
cates the treatment required. Where we see side branches
naturally produced the first season, we at once conclude
that the buds are well disposed to break, and the cutting
back may be comparatively light. Where no side
branches are produced, we must be governed by the
appearance of the buds on the lower part of the tree,
where it is desired to produce the lower branches ; if they
be small and flat, it will take close cutting to arouse them ;
but if plump and prominent, less vigorous measures will
be necessary. In the case of short, stout, and branched
yearlings, a few of the best placed, lowest, and strongest
branches are reserved, whilst the others are entirely re-
moved. We then shorten the reserved branches accord-
ing to their position, leaving the lowest the longest. The
leading shoot is shortened, so that all the buds left will be
sure to push and form shoots. When these have attained
the length of two or three inches, the strongest and best
placed are selected for permanent branches, and the others
are pinched off.

Yearlings that have no side branches (fig. 91), we gen-
erally cut back one-half, as to JB, and, in many cases, two-
thirds, to (7, in order to obtain strong branches near the
ground. Almost every bud, below the one we cut to,
should push ; and when shoots of two inches or so are
made, we select two, three, or such number as may be
wanted, of the strongest and best situated, to be reserved,
and pinch the others. It very generally happens that two
or three buds next below the one we cut to, push with
such vigor as to injure both the leading shoot above and
the side shoots below them. They must be watched, and

BUDDHSTG, GRAFTING, ETC.

157

pinched as soon as this disposition becomes obvious.

Yearling trees managed in this way will present, in the

fall, the appearance of fig. 93.

Purchasers are very apt to favor tall trees even at the

expense of their forms ; and nurserymen, even those who
know better, with a view to suiting
the tastes of their customers, rarely
cut their trees back sufficiently to
make pyramids. The first branches
are seldom less than two feet from
the ground, and it is quite difficult to
make real pyramids of such trees af-
terwards ; at all events, it incurs a
great loss of time, for the whole of
the branches and half of the stem
must be cut away to produce the
required form.

Dwarf Bushes. — The apple on
Paradise is generally grown in this
form — with six to twelve inches of
a stem, and spreading heads. The
Morello cherry, and the cherry, or
Fig. 93. Mirabelle plums, and many kinds of

Fig. 93, a two-year-old pears, may be grown as dwarf

^tS£%Z£*£ b«shes> if Desirable. The stocks

cross lines indicate the must all be of a dwarf character.

Plants, from which the strongest

have been selected for dwarf standards and pyramids,
will make very good bushes. The branches being
so near the root, renders a less amount of vigor neces-
sary. Very strong yearling plants may be allowed to
form heads the second year, but such as are very slen-
der, will require cutting back and another season's growth
before the head is allowed to form ; and they will require
a similar course of treatment as has been recommended
for standards and dwarf standards. No matter what the

158 THE NURSERY.

character of the tree is, a stout stem is necessary ; and,
although the measures taken to obtain this seem, to re-
quire, in some cases, a loss of time, still there is a gain in
the end ; for trees allowed to form heads before the stems
are amply sufficient to support them, require a great deal
of extra care after planting out, and a course of shorten-
ing back, that offsets the temporary advantage of forming
the head a year sooner. This holds good in all cases.
The mode of forming the heads of dwarf bushes is simi-
lar to that described for standards.

^Espalier Trees. — These have a few advantages peculiar
to themselves, which will be explained under the head
of " the selection of trees for the garden."

To form espaliers, yearling trees are usually chosen,
planted in the place where they are to remain, and cut
back to within four or five buds of the stocks, as at D,
fig. 91 ; these buds break and produce shoots, from which
the strongest are chosen to form the arms, and the others
are rubbed off.

The peach grows so vigorously that, if the growing
bud be checked when a foot high, it will produce side
shoots, from which two may be selected from the main
branches of the espalier, and thus a year will be saved.
Another way is to insert two buds, one on each side of
the stock. Very nice espalier trees may be grown in
the form of a pyramid, with a main stem and lateral
branches, the lowest being the longest. I have seen the
pear grown in this form very successfully. Trees for this
form require the same management as pyramids, except
that the branches should be placed opposite on two sides.
This brings us to the end of the third year, and the trees
are now two years old from the bud. At this age we
take it for granted that ,all trees on dwarf stocks for pyra-
mids, dwarfs, and espaliers, and all standards even, of
the peach, apricot, and nectarine, and, in most cases, the
cherry and plum, will be finally planted out. Standard

TREATMENT OF SOIL. 159

pears and apples are almost the only trees that require to
be left longer in the nursery ; and their management
during the third and fourth years of their growth, if
allowed to remain so long, will be similar to that de-
scribed for the second. In the spring, February, or
March, the leading shoot is cut back, in order to increase
the stoutness of the stem as it advances in height ; and,
during the summer, the side shoots are kept of uniform
length and vigor by pinching. The lower side branches
are removed gradually, every season, as the tree becomes
strong enough to dispense with them. As it has been be-
fore remarked, the cutting back depends always on the
natural character of the subject. Stout, short-jointed,
moderate growing sorts, that naturally increase in height
and diameter of stem in proper proportions, will require
no cutting back. Very few, however, have this habit.
In nearly all cases, more or less shortening-in, every
spring, is necessary, until the stem has arrived at the
requisite height, and is well proportioned, decreasing
gradually in diameter from the base to the top.

The Treatment of the Soil. — During the whole period
the trees remain in the nursery, the ground about them
must be kept clean and finely pulverized on the surface
by repeated and continual stirring. Every spring, as soon
as the heavy rains are over, and the ground is settled and
dry, the space between the rows should be plowed, if
they are far enough apart to admit of it. A small one-
horse plow, such as is used for plowing cornfields (see
implements), is suitable, but it should not be allowed to go
nearer than six inches to the tree, nor so deep as to come
in contact with the roots. After plowing, the cultivator
may be run through once each way between the rows,
every week or two, and this will leave very little hoeing
to be done. If the rows are so close as not to admit the
plow and cultivator, the forked spade must be used in
the spring, to give the ground a thorough stirring, and

160 THE NURSERY.

afterwards the hoe. If the ground be naturally adhesive,
a second or even a third plowing or spading may be
necessary in the course of the summer ; for it must, at all
times, be kept in a loose, porous condition, or the roots
will be deprived of the benefits of the air and moisture.
Stirring the ground so often that weeds barely make
their appearance is not only the best but most economical
culture.

It need scarcely be added that, in using the plow or
cultivator among trees, a very short whiffle-tree should
be used, the horse should be gentle and steady, and the
plowman both careful and skillful ; and laborers who use
the spade or hoe should be duly cautioned against cutting
or bruising the trees with their implements.

SECTION 5. — PROPAGATION AND XURSERY CULTURE OF
SEVERAL FRUIT-TREES AND SHRUBS NOT USUALLY
GRAFTED OR BUDDED.

1st. The Grape. — During the last ten years, the culture
of hardy grapes has made great progress in the United
States. The demand for vines has, consequently, been
very great, so that nurserymen and grape growers have
resorted to every method of propagation that skill and
ingenuity could suggest.

I think it may be truly said that a single establishment
has produced as many vines in one season as all the nurse-
ries in the Union did twenty years ago.

Grafting, layering of ripe wood and green wood, long
cuttings, eyes, both of ripe wood and green wood, culture
in the open air and under glass — some employing one,
and some the other, and some all of these combined.

I shall proceed to describe, briefly, each of these
methods.

(1.) Layering, which is the most simple, and the surest
for unpractised hands. There are two modes of layering,
one of the ripe wood, and the other of the green. The

THE GKAPE. 161

first is performed by laying down, in the spring, a shoot
or cane of last seasons growth, bedding it in the ground,
and covering it two inches or so in depth. A young
plant will be produced from every eye, or joint. In the
fall the cane is lifted, and the young plants separated
from one another by cutting between the joints. This
makes very good plants.

Layering the Green Wood is performed by laying
down, in midsummer, a shoot or cane of the current sea-
son's growth in the manner described in the article on
propagation, page 87, fig. 64.

(2.) Long Cuttings. — This is the common, well-known,
old-fashioned method of propagating the hardy grapes ;
and is, on the whole, perhaps, the cheapest and best in all
ordinary cases. It is done in this way : The strongest,
roundest, and ripest shoots, or canes, of the previous sea-
son's growth, are selected, and cut into pieces twelve to
eighteen inches in length ; having two or three eyes, or
buds, as in fig. 62.

They are cut close to an eye at the lower end, tied up
in bundles of convenient size, and may be buried in sand,
in a cold cellar, until the frost is out of the ground, in the
spring, when they can be set in a trench in the ground,
exposed to the south, in the bundles, lower end up, and
covered four to six inches deep with earth. Here they
can remain until the ground is dry and warm, and the
weather favorable to growth. By this time the ends will
be calloused, and, perhaps, even begin to emit roots, when
they may be planted.

In planting, the whole cutting, is buried, leaving the
upper eye just at or near the surface ; but the cutting is
laid obliquely, as in fig. 62, so that the lower part will
not be too far away from atmospheric heat.

The summer culture will consist in keeping the ground
clean and mellow ; and if only one shoot is allowed to
grow, and kept tied up, all the. better.

J0*3 THE NURSERY.

Propagation from Eyes. — The propagation of the
hardy grape from eyes, in the open ground, or without
bottom heat, is not generally practised, yet, with most
kinds, it may be done with tolerable success. As in the
case of the long cuttings, the rooting process should be
commenced before the eyes are planted out. This is clone
by mixing with sand or earth or moss in shallow boxes,
and placing them in a greenhouse, or in a frame with a
glazed sash over them, for three or four weeks before the
time of planting out. They should not be planted until
the ground is warm, and the weather favorable to im-
mediate growth. The soil should be dry, warm, and light,
covering about two inches deep.

In favorable seasons, tolerably good plants are produced
in this way, especially of the free-growing sorts.

The more common way of propagating from eyes is to
start them on a bottom heat, either in propagating houses
or in hot-beds. In houses, the bottom heat is furnished
either by hot water, circulating in tanks, by hot- water
pipes, or by warm-air flues of brick or tile, under the
bench, in which the eyes are planted. Any and all of
these modes of supplying bottom heat answer very well.

When the eyes are well rooted, they are transplanted
into good, rich soil, either in another house, or in frame
covered with glass, or into open borders. Larger and bet-
ter ripened plants will be produced under glass, but at a
much greater cost. The present system, however, of
crowding them so close together in glass-houses, and forc-
ing their growth, produces very weak, poor plants, which,
but for the present demand for new sorts, would be re-
garded as worthies*.

Propagating from Eyes of Green Wood. — This
method has, of late, been resorted to for the purpose of
increasing the new high-priced varieties. When a grape
is selling at $2 to $3 per plant, the inducement to multi-
ply it is very great. Some people think that good plants

THE GRAPE. 163

cannot be produced in this way ; but this is an error. It
is true, however, that very few good plants are thus pro-
duced. If only good, strong wood were used, grown on
vigorous plants, and so far advanced in ripeness as to have
the eyes well developed, as good plants can be grown in
this way as from ripe wood eyes. But when weak shoots
or laterals are used, and when two or three crops of shoots
or eyes are taken from the same plants, by a forced growth,
the plants are not good. No purchaser of ordinary intel-
ligence can be deceived with them. They are generally
sold on account of their cheapness, and those who buy
them on that account should not complain. My opinion
is, in regard to plants, that if they are strong, well rooted,
and well ripened, it is of no consequence how they were
propagated.

In propagating from green-wood cuttings, the eyes are
prepared in the same manner as ripe-wood eyes, but the
leaf, or a portion of it, is left attached to each one, and
they must have a bottom heat of 70° or 80°, or even
more.

In two or three weeks they will be rooted sufficiently
to bear transplanting, and then they are treated as other
plants in the same condition ; usually, however, they are
kept under glass until the end of the season.

Grafting. — In the case of new and rare varieties, graft-
ing has been, and is, employed with great success. We
have grown Delawares fifteen or sixteen feet high, and of
unusual thickness, from the graft, in one season, under glass.

Very small pieces, say two inches, if small roots, are
used, as the object is merely to furnish a temporary sup-
port to the eye, until its own roots have been produced.

The root is cut to a wedge shape at the upper end, and
the cion, a single eye, with about an inch of wood, is
set on it like a saddle, and tied with a thread.

The planting and subsequent treatment is just the same
as for eyes.

164 THE NURSERY.

It is not my purpose to describe, in detail, all the opera-
tions connected with the propagation of the grape, but
to give a general idea of the several methods, and the
principles upon which they are supposed to be founded.
Those who desire more explicit and full information may
consult some of the special treatises on the grape, which
have recently been published.

The foreign varieties of the grape are propagated al-
most exclusively from eyes of the ripe wood.

They are prepared and planted on a bottom heat, as
described for the hardy sorts.

The eyes, however, are usually put in pots — a single
eye in a 3-inch pot — when only a small number are to be
propagated, or several eyes may be put in a large pot
around the edges. On a large scale, the eyes may be
planted directly on the propagating benches, or in boxes
containing several hundred eyes.

The material used to plant them in, either in pots,
boxes, or on the benches, is almost pure sand, and the
eyes are inserted so that the bud shall be nearly covered.

Here, a steady temperature of 70° or 80°, and regular
watering, are indispensable. When they have made a
growth of three or four inches, the plants can be shifted
into pots of good, rich compost, and replaced on the bot-
tom heat, watered regularly, tied up, and the laterals
suppressed ; they will make fine plants in one season.
Towards autumn, say after 1st of September, ample ven-
tilation and little watering should be given, so as to pro-
mote the ripening of the wood.

Wintering the Young Plants. — Young plants of the
hardy grapes, whether grown in the house or open -bor-
der, should be allowed to stand in their place until the
approach of hard freezing, so that they may ripen as well
as possible.

They should then be taken up, " heeled in," laid in
trenches in dry soil, covering the roots and stem almost

THE CURRANT. 165

to the top with earth, and then, over all, some leaves,
straw, or evergreen branches.

Young plants of the foreign varieties, grown in pots,
we usually winter in the pots, on shelves, in a cellar free
from frost ; but they might be wintered in the same way
as the hardy grapes — shaking them out of the pots, and
heeling them in.

2d. The Currant. — Every one knows how to propagate
this. A yearling shoot, six inches to a foot long, taken
off close to the old wood, and planted half or two-thirds
its length in the ground, in the spring, will make a
strong, well-rooted plant in the autumn. To prevent
shoots from springing up below the surface of the ground,
the eyes on that part are cut out, or they may be left the
first season, and cut out when the plants are rooted.

The buds aid in the formation of roots. When a
variety is rare and scarce, the young shoots may all be
layered in July, and they will make well-rooted plants
in the fall.

3d. Gooseberries are propagated in the same way, and
with almost equal facility, as currants, though, as a gen-
eral thing, they do not grow with such rapidity. Layers
are the surest, but they require to be one year in the
nursery rows after being separated from the mother plant,
to make them strong enough for the final planting. An
inch or two of swamp moss, laid over the surface of the
ground in which layers are made, assists in retaining the
moisture. This is applicable to all kinds of layers.

4th. Strawberries are propagated by the runners, which
spread on the surface of the ground, in all directions, from
the plant, as soon as it begins to grow in the spring.
Where a variety is scarce, and it is desirable to multiply
it carefully, these runners should be sunk slightly in the
ground, and pegged down, as they will root and form
plants for removal much quicker than if left to root in
their own way. With good management, a single plant

166 THE NURSERY.

may produce twenty-five to fifty, and even one hundred
in one season. Plants to be propagated from should have
abundance of space, and a deep, rich soil. An applica-
tion of liquid manure will stimulate their vigor, and in-
crease the number and strength of the runners.

The Bush Alpine varieties, which make no runners, are
usually propagated by division ; but it is much better to
propagate them by seeds, which should be sown as soon
as the fruit is ripe.

5th. Raspberries. — The usual mode of propagating the
Raspberry is from the shoots, or canes, called " suckers,"
which are produced from the collar and spreading roots
of the plant. A crop of these spring up every year.

Much better plants, and many more of them, may be
produced by taking up the roots, cutting them into small
pieces, say an inch long, and planting them in beds of
good, rich, light soil, with a little bottom heat, and a
glazed sash over them, until they have made a good start.
They may then be transplanted to the open borders. In
this way fine plants are made in one season — much better
than the ordinary suckers from old plants.

The American Black Cap family of raspberries are
propagated from the tips of the shoots, which are fastened
to the ground. This is their natural method of multiply-
ing themselves.

The seeds are washed out of the ripe fruit and sowed
at once, making good plants the next season.

6th. Blackberries. — The Blackberry is propagated in ex-
actly the same way as the raspberry, but the cuttings of
roots make much more desirable plants than the suckers.
Indeed, the latter are seldom fit to be planted ; being
destitute of fibres, they mostly fail.

7th. Mulberries. — The principal Mulberries grown for
the fruit are the Black Mulberry (Morus nigrd), and Down-
ing's Everbearing, a seedling of the Morus multicaulis,
used so extensively in China to feed the silk-worm.

BARBERRIES, CHESTNUTS, ETC. 167

Both can be propagated from cuttings and layers, and
by grafting and inarching. We usually graft on roots
of the White Mulberry in the house, as we do grapes —
put them in pots or boxes, and keep them under glass
until they have taken well and made a few inches of
growth, when they are planted out in the open ground.

8th. Barberries. — These are propagated from seeds,
suckers, and layers in the simplest manner. It usually
takes layers two years to root sufficiently to be separated
from the parent plant. New or rare sorts can be grafted
on the common ones quite easily.

9th. Chestnuts are usually grown from seed, either plant-
ed in the fall, as we always do, or kept in sand during
winter, and planted in the spring. The large varieties
of the Spanish Chestnut, or Marron, which do not come
true from seed, can be grafted on the others.

10th. Filberts are grown from seed, but the finer varie-
ties are propagated by suckers or layers, or by grafting
them on seedling stocks. Plants grown in the latter way
have the advantage of not producing suckers, and are,
therefore, more desirable for the garden. Layering is the
method usually employed in the nurseries.

llth. Walnuts. — Our native Walnuts, and the English
Walnut, or Madeira Nut, are usually grown from seed ;
but there is a Dwarf prolific variety of the English, called
"Preparturiens" which must be increased by grafting or
budding on the others, and this is rarely performed with
any considerable degree of success in the nurseries.

12th. Figs. — The Fig can be easily propagated from
seeds, layers, cuttings of ripe wood or green wood, and
from suckers. As the more esteemed varieties do not re-
produce truly from seed, this method is seldom employed,
except in seeking for new varieties. Layering is a very
good way. Fruiting branches may be layered in pots or
boxes, and thus fruiting plants be obtained at once.

Cuttings of ripe wood, taken off in the fall, kept in the

168 THE NURSERY.

cellar in sand during the winter, and planted out in the
spring in a warm, dry border, will grow about as certain-
ly as grape cuttings, if not more so.

If planted in pots, and set in a hot-bed, or where they
will get a slight bottom heat, they will come along more
surely and rapidly. Cuttings of the green shoots, taken
off when two or three inches long, and placed on a gentle
bottom heat, root quickly.

SECTION 6. — LABELS FOR NURSERY TREES.

It is highly important that a correct system for preserv-
ing the names of varieties be adopted. Our practice is,
to make labels of cedar, eighteen inches long, three inches
wide, and about an inch thick. These are pointed
on one end, to be sunk- in the ground eight or ten
inches, and the face is painted white. When a
variety is to be budded or grafted, the name, or
a number referring to a regular record, is written
on it, and it is put in the ground in front of
the first tree of the variety. Besides this, we
invariably record, in the nursery book, each row,
with the kind or kinds worked on it, in the order
they stand in the square. In case of the acci-
dental loss of the labels, the record preserves- the
names. Figure 94 represents this kind of label,
and though there are many others in use, we
believe this to be one of the simplest and best.
At the time of budding or grafting, we usu-
Fi ^94 _ a^ write tne «ame on with pencil, and after the
I.ABEL square has been all worked, the numbers are
NUKSEKY ma(^e with a brush and black paint in a conspicu-
ROWS. ous manner.

SECTION 7. — TAKING TIP TREES FROM THE NURSERY.

This is an operation that should be well understood,
and performed with the greatest care. The importance

TAKING UP TREES PROM THE NURSERY. 169

of the fibrous roots has been already explained. It has
been shown that they are the principal absorbing parts of
the roots, and when they are destroyed, the tree receives a
great shock, from which it requires good treatment and a
long time to recover. There is a great difference in the
character of roots, some penetrating the ground to a great
depth, and requiring much labor in the removal, others
quite fibrous near the surface, and consequently very
easily taken up. This difference is not owing alone to
the difference in the species, but to whether the subjects
have or have not been frequently transplanted. The way
to take up a tree properly is to dig a trench 011 each side,
at the extremities of the lateral or spreading roots, taking
care that the edge, and not the face of the spade, be kept
next the tree, so that the roots will not be cut off. When
this trench is so deep as to be below all the lateral roots,
a slight pull, and a pry on each side with the spade, will
generally bring out the tree. If there be strong tap-
roots, running down to a great depth, they may be cut
with a stroke of the spade. Laborers who have not been
accustomed to the work, invariably perform it badly ; and
it is difficult to get it properly done, even \ >•

by experienced hands. It is a work requir- X. /
ing care and leisure, though it is usually jp

95. — WIRED

performed slovenly, and in great haste.

Labelling. — When a tree, or a number of
trees, of any variety are taken up, a label,
with the name written on it, should at once
be attached. The kind of label used in the
nurseries here is a piece of pine, about three
and a half inches long, three-fourths of an "LABEL FOR'
inch wide, and one-eighth of an inch thick.
A neck is made on one end by cutting into each
edge about an eighth of an inch ; a piece of No. 26
copper wire, about seven or eight inches long, is then
fastened in the middle, on the neck of the label, witlj
8

170 THE NURSERY.

two or three twists. The two ends of the wire are
then placed around the stem, or a branch of the tree,
and are fastened with a twist or two. This kind of
wire and label we find, by experience, to be not only safe,
but more expeditiously attached than any other. If a
little paint is rubbed on just before being used, the writ-
ing will be more legible and permanent, but it should be
so light a.s to be barely perceptible, else it will clog the
pencil. These labels are now manufactured in this city
by machinery, and furnished to the nurserymen, without
the wire, at thirty to forty cents per thousand. The wire
costs sixty cents per pound, and is cut into lengths with a
pair of common shears.

Packing. — Persons who are ignorant of the structure
of trees never appreciate the importance of packing, and
that is the reason why so many trees are every year
destroyed by exposure. It is not uncommon, in this part
of the country, to see apple trees loaded up on hay-racks,
like so much brush, without a particle of covering on any
part of them, to travel a journey of three or four weeks
in this condition. Of course it is utterly impossible that
such trees can live or thrive ; and yet the persons who
thus conduct their nursery operations are doing the most
profitable business. Such practices are not only dishonest,
But highly injurious and disreputable to the trade ; and
it is by no means fair to class such people amongst re-
spectable and honorable nurserymen.

Purchasers are often at fault in this matter. Nursery-
men have to buy and pay for the material used in pack-
ing. Mats cost one to two shillings apiece; straw, four
to five cents per small bundle ; yarn, one to two shillings
per pound ; moss, $15 to $20 per cord ; and besides, the
labor of packing, when well done, is very great. It is,
therefore, not unreasonable that a charge be made ; but
some people, rather than pay fifty cents for packing fifty
trees, would expose themselves to the risk of losing all.

TAKING TIP TREES FROM THE NURSERY. 171

Purchasers should invariably charge the nurseryman, to
whom they send their orders, to pack in the best manner.
Better pay one or even two cents per tree for packing
than lose it, or injure it so much as to make it almost
worthless.

The mode of packing pursued here is this : Where the
trees are packed in bundles, a number of ties are first laid
down, then a layer of long rye straw, three or four inches
deep ; the trees are then laid compactly together, straw
being placed among the tops, to prevent their being chafed
when drawn together, and damp moss from the swamp is
shaken among the roots. When the bundle is built, long
straw is placed on the top as below, and it is then bound
up as tightly as it can be drawn. Straw is then placed
around the roots sufficiently thick to exclude the air, and
then a bass mat is sewed on over the straw. If the bun-
dle is only to go a short distance, the straw can be so se-
cured around the roots that the mats may be dispensed
with ; but if it has a long journey to perform, it should
be matted from bottom to top, and sewed with strong,
tarred, spun yarn, about as thick as a goose-quill Hoxes
are more secure for very long journeys ; they are generally
made of 6|8-inch white pine timber. Boxes are now em-
ployed almost exclusively, as they are found to be cheaper
and safer, and railroads charge one-half more freight on
strawed or matted bundles. If the trees are composed
of several varieties, they should be tied in small parcels
of four to six each, according to the size. The sides and
ends of the box should be well lined with straw, and the
roots bedded in moss and the tops in straw, to prevent
chafing.

If the box be large, two rows of cleats are necessary —
one in the middle, and one in the top, to hold the trees in
their place, and to keep the box from spreading. When
the box is nailed up, it should be banded both at the ends
and middle with iron hoops, fastened with wrought nails.

172 THE NtTKSERY.

Hickory hoops are sometimes employed, and answer very
well. Packed in this way, trees may go any distance
with safety. The season of the year modifies the mode
of packing. The roots should always, for a long journey,
be immersed in a thin mud before being packed, as this
excludes the air ; but in the fall, this mud should be dry
before the package is made up, and the moss should con-
tain very little moisture. In a frosty time, the less moist-
ure there is about the roots the better ; but an abundance
of straw should be used to exclude the air and frost.

Heeling-in. — When trees are taken up, and can neither
be packed nor planted at once, they are laid in by the
roots in trenches ; the longer they have to remain in this
situation the better it should be performed. Trees are
often wintered in this way, and, if the trenches are dug
deep, and the roots well spread out, and deeply covered,
they are perfectly safe. It should be done, in such cases,
with almost as much care as the final planting of a tree.
When great bundles of the roots are huddled in together,
and only three or four inches of earth thrown over them,
both air and frost act upon them, and they sustain serious
injury. Tender trees, likely to suffer from the freezing of
the shoots, should be laid in an inclined, almost horizon-
tal, position, and be covered with brush, evergreen boughs,
or something that will break the violence of the wind
and frost. Straw should not be used, as it attracts vermin.
Some rough litter or manure should also be thrown around
the roots, and in this way the most tender of all our fruit
trees may be wintered with safety.

PA.RT III.

THE LAYING OUT, ARRANGEMENT, AND GENERAL
MANAGEMENT OP DIFFERENT KINDS OF PER-
MANENT PLANTATIONS OF FRUIT-TREES,
SELECTION OF TREES AND VARIETIES,
AND PRUNING AND CONDUCTING
TREES UNDER VARIOUS FORMS.

173

CHAPTER I.

PERMANENT PLANTATIONS OF FRUIT-TREES.
SECTION 1. — THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PLANTATIONS.

The different kinds of plantations may be classed as
follows : 1st. The Family Orchard, which is a portion of
the farm set apart for the production of the more hardy
and common fruit, principally apples, for the use of the
farm stock and the family. 2d. The Market, or Commer-
cial Orchard, a large plantation of the various species
of fruit-trees, for the production of fruit as an article of
commerce. 3d. The Fruit Garden, which, with the far-
mer, is a plot of ground near the dwelling, in which the
finer fruits, as pears, peaches, plums, cherries, apricots,
etc., and all the small fruits, are cultivated. In many
cases, and even in most cases, it is a portion of the kitchen
garden, where the table or culinary vegetables are
grown. With the professional man, the merchant, the
mechanic, and others who reside in cities, villages, and
their suburbs, possessing but small tracts of land, at most
but a few acres, the fruit garden is the only source for
the supply of fruits for their families, and is usually
planted with the most rare, perishable, and valuable sorts,
that cannot so easily be procured in market.

The pleasure and profit derived from fruit plantations,
under any or all of these circumstances, depend upon
the judicious selection of soil, situation, trees, and varie-
ties, and their proper arrangement and management.
These are the essential points, and every man who con-
templates planting to a greater or less extent, should
avail himself of all the light which experience has shed

175

176 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

upon these various branches of the subject, before mak-
ing the first movement towards the execution of his
project.

SECTION 2. — THE ORCHARD.

The orchard is distinguished from the fruit garden in
this, that the trees planted in it are generally of the larg-
est size to which the species attain ; they are grown in
the natural, or, as it is called, standard form, without any
particular training, and the varieties are generally the
most hardy and productive of the species.

1st. The situation of an orchard, with regard to expos-
ure or aspect, requires very little consideration in some
parts of the country. Where, as in Western New York,
for instance, the winters are uniform, or comparatively so,
in temperature, and late spring frosts do not prevail, the
main difficulties to guard against are the prevailing high
winds from the west and north that injure the blossoms,
and blow off the fruit before it is mature. If possible, a
situation should be chosen where some natural obstacle,
as a hill, or a belt of woods, would break the force and
influence of these destructive winds. Where no such
obstacle naturally exists, a belt or border of rapidly-grow-
ing trees, such as Soft Maple, White Pine, Norway
Spruce, Scotch Pine, European Larch, etc., should be
planted simultaneously with the planting of the orchard,
that they may grow up and form a protection by the time
the trees have come into bearing. Instances occur every
year in our own section where sheltered orchards bear
full crops, whilst those fully exposed to the winds fail
entirely.

In other sections, as in some of the central and south-
ern counties of New York, and in some parts of Ohio,
Illinois, Wisconsin, and others of the Western as well as
in the Southern States, where late and fatal spring frosts
prevail, the selection of a situation is a most important

THE ORCHARD. 177

point. In such localities, an eastern and southern expos-
ure, and low grounds, are to be avoided.

John J. Thomas, in his Fruit Culturist, states that, "In
the valley of the Coshocton, which is flanked by hills five
hundred feet high, peach-trees have been completely killed
to the ground, but on one of the neighboring hills, five
hundred feet above, and probably twelve hundred feet
above the level of the sea, an orchard, planted in good soil,
yields regular crops. In the town of Spencer, Tioga
County, near the head of Cayuga Inlet, peaches have with-
stood the climate and done well at an elevation of seven
hundred feet above Cayuga Lake." Lawrence Young, Esq. ,
Chairman of the Kentucky Fruit Committee, reported to
the Pomological Convention at Cincinnati, in 1850, the
case of an orchard in that State, lying within the peach
district, occupying the slopes of hills of no great hight,
inclining gently toward a river, distant only a few hundred
yards. Its success was that common to a fickle, western
climate — a fruit year and a failure, or perhaps two years
of productiveness and three of disappointment in every
five.

Within five miles of this orchard, however, is located
a hill six hundred feet high, upon which the peach crop
has not failed since he first knew it. Numerous other in-
stances are quoted and the particulars given with great
accuracy, showing the effects of even very slight eleva-
tions.

Among others, is an instance of the Heath Peach bear-
ing a full crop in one part of an orchard, whilst in another
part, thirty feet lower, the same variety bore not a single
fruit. Multitudes of such cases might be collected in all
parts of the country where the climate is variable, because
in such situations vegetation is earlier excited than in those
more elevated and colder, and frosts always fall more
heavily on low than on high grounds. Every one who
has paid the slightest attention to the action of frost on
8*

178 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

vegetation is aware, that even an elevation of two or three
feet of one portion of the same field or garden above the
other frequently proves a protection from an untimely frost.
In a dry and firm soil, vegetation is more exempt from
injuries by frost than in a damp, soft, and spongy soil on
the same level, not only because trees on such soils are
more mature and hardier in these parts, but because the
soil and the atmosphere above it are less charged with
watery particles that form the deposition of frost. Bodies
of water that do not freeze in winter, such as some of our
inland lakes, exert a favorable influence for a considerable
distance from their margins in protecting vegetation from
late spring and early autumn frosts. This is well illus-
trated in Western New York, along the south shore of
Lake Ontario. Here, in the counties of Wayne, Monroe,
Orleans, and Niagara, for a distance varying from five to
seven miles from the lake, the peach crop rarely fails ;
while farther inland, as the lake influence diminishes, the
peach crop, for the last ten years, has been, with occasional
exceptions, a failure.

In some parts of the West, as in Wisconsin and Illinois,
the winters are so variable — during the day as mild as
spring, and in the night the mercury falling many degrees
below zero — that even the apple and pear trees in soft,
damp, and rich soils are frequently killed to the ground.

In such localities, experience has taught cultivators
that elevated, dry, firm, and moderately rich soil, that will
produce a firm, well-matured growth, is the only safe-
guard against the destruction of plantations in the winter.

In all localities where fruit culture has made any consid-
erable progress, there is generally experience enough to be
found, if carefully sought for and collected, to guide begin-
ners in fixing upon sites for orchards ; and no man should ven-
ture to plant without giving due attention to the subject,
and availing himself of all the experience of his neighbors ;
for experience, after all, is the only truly reliable guide.

THE ORCHARD. 179

2d. The Soil. — Having treated already of the different
characters and modes of amelioration of soils, it is only
necessary here to point out what particular qualities or
kinds are best adapted to the different classes of fruit-
trees, as far as experience will warrant in so doing. There
are soils of a certain texture and quality, in which, by
proper management, all our hardy fruits may be grown
to perfection; for instance, the soil of our specimen
orchard, which is that usually termed a sandy loam, with
a sandy , clay subsoil, so dry that it can be worked imme-
diately after a rain of twenty-four hours. On this we
have apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, and,
indeed, all the fruits planted promiscuously, side by side,
not of choice, but necessity, and all these yield bountiful
crops of the finest fruit. Our country abounds in such
soils, and others somewhat different in character, but
equally eligible for all fruit-trees when well managed.
On the other hand, there are soils wholly unfit for fruit-
trees of any kind — such are peaty or mucky, and damp,
cold, and spongy soils. For an orchard of apples or
pears, a dry, deep, substantial soil, between sandy and a
clayey loam, and possessing among its inorganic parts a
considerable portion of lime, is, according to all experi-
ence, the best. On such soils we find the greatest and
most enduring vigor and fertility, the healthiest and
hardiest trees, and the fairest and best-flavored fruits.
Trees, both of apples and pears, planted on such soils in
Western New York, upwards of fifty years ago, are, at
this day, in the very hight of their vigor and productive-
ness, without having received more than the most ordi-
nary culture. It has been observed that apples, grown
on clayey soils, keep better than those grown on light
soils.

The plum succeeds best, as a general thing, on a clayey
loam, rather stiff. The Canada or native plum, and Mira-
belle, however, succeed well on very light soils. The

180 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

cherry, the peach, apricot, nectarine, and almond, require
a light, dry, and warm soil. The best an<l most enduring
peach orchards are on dry, sandy loams ; but good
orchards are raised, with proper management, on loose,
light sands, though on such the trees are shorter lived,
and require constant care in the way of dressings of
manure and compost. There are two points to be ob-
served under all circumstances in regard to soils. They
must possess the inorganic substances, such as lime, pot-
ash, etc., that constitute a large portion of the ashes of
the wood and bark of fruit-trees, when burned, and a suf-
ficient amount of organic matter — vegetable mould, which
dissolves, and furnishes material for the formation and
growth of new parts. People who have been long en-
gaged in the culture of the soil can judge pretty cor-
rectly of its quality by its appearance, texture, subsoil,
and the character of the rocks and stones that underlie
and prevail in it.

3d. Preparation of Soil for an Orchard. — The season
before planting, the soil should be at least twice ploiced
with a common and subsoil plow, enriched with suitable
composts, and drained, if necessary.

4th. Inclosures. — Before a tree is planted, it is neces-
sary that the ground be inclosed with a fence, sufficient
to protect it against the invasion of animals. It is no
uncommon thing to hear people regret that the cattle
broke into the orchard and destroyed many trees. Indeed,
it frequently happens that more damage is done in this
way than, if duly estimated, would have fenced the whole
orchard. There is much inquiry nowadays on the sub-
ject of fences, and various plans and materials are sug-
gested and tried. Live hedges are unquestionably the
most ornamental and appropriate inclosures for extensive
plantations of fruit-trees, and in time will, no doubt, be
trene rally adopted. Hitherto the failure of many plants
tried, and the cost and difficulty of obtaining others, have

THE ORCHARD. 181

retarded their introduction. Experience, however, has at
length pretty fairly decided that the Osage Orange is the
best for the West and South-west, and the Buckthorn for
the North and East. The seeds of both these plants are
now easily procured, and plants of them may be obtained
in nurseries from $3 to $5 per 1,000 ; and about 2,000 will
fence an acre of ground, setting the plants twelve inches
apart, in two rows, six inches apart, which is the strong-
est way. A single row, with the plants at six inches
apart, will make a good fence, with proper shearing to
thicken them at the bottom ; either way they will make
a beautiful and efficient hedge in five or six years. The
Honey-Locust is also a strong, hardy, rapid-growing plant,
and makes a very beautiful and efficient hedge, which, in
six or seven years from the planting, will turn any ani-
mals. We are using this on our own grounds in prefer-
ence to all others.

For an ornamental hedge, and screen or shelter, there
is nothing equal at the North to the Norway Spruce and
Arbor Vitce. It is sometimes objected to hedges that
they harbor birds ; but it is to be remembered that birds
are the natural foes of insects, and never fail to accom-
plish a vast amount of labor for the good of the fruit
grower, for which they ought to be fully entitled to a
participation in his enjoyments. As the feathered race
are persecuted and driven away from our gardens, insects
become more numerous and destructive ; at least this is
the experience of most people, and should lessen, if not
entirely prevent, the cruel hostility that is continually
waged against them. It must, however, be admitted that
occasionally certain species will attack our fruits in such
force that their destruction becomes not only justifiable,
but necessary. Even the Robin becomes troublesome at
times.

5th. Selection of Varieties of Fruits for an Orchard. —
This is a most important point. The selection of varie-

182 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

ties must, in all cases, be made with reference to the spe-
cial purposes for which they are intended. The family
orchard of the farmer we will suppose to contain apple-
trees alone, as all the other fruits are, or ought to be,
grown in the fruit garden. His selection of varieties
must be adapted to his wants and circumstances. In the
first place, the number of his family must regulate the
proportion of kitchen and table varieties. In the second
place, he must consider how many he will want for sauce,
how many for baking and drying, how many for cider,
and how many for the dessert, and what proportion of
sweet and of acid. These are all considerations that de-
pend upon the habits, taste, and mode of living of fami-
lies, and for which no man can provide or suggest but
the planter himself. Then, again, he must consider to
what extent it may be advantageous to feed apples to his
stock, nnd provide for it accordingly.

Without considering well all these points, a man may
sit down and select what are called " the best varieties,"
and yet find himself badly suited when they come to
bear ; for so it happens that a variety that may be best
for the dessert, will be exceedingly unprofitable for other
purposes. A hardy, vigorous, and productive variety, of
medium quality, quite unfit for the table, may be infinitely
more advantageous for feeding stock than a feeble-grow-
ing, shy-bearing variety, quite indispensable for the des-
sert ; and an apple may be excellent for sauce, for baking,
or drying, and unfit for the dessert. These points should
all be duly considered.

The Market or Commercial Orchardist must exercise
the same discrimination in the selection of his varieties,
adapting them to the mode of culture he intends to pur-
sue and the market he intends to supply. In the imme-
diate vicinity of large cities and towns, where the
orchardist may carry his fruit to market in a few hours,
the most profitable culture will, generally speaking, be

THE ORCHARD. 183

summer and early autumn fruits, or such as require to be
consumed immediately after maturity, and are unfit for
distant transportation. Early apples and pears only will
be profitable for him, because the autumn and winter va-
rieties can be sent so easily from the most distant portions
of the interior, with such facilities as our present system
of railroads, plank-roads, canals, and steamboats afford.
In addition to early apples and pears, his position gives
him great advantages for the profitable culture of all the
stone fruits, gooseberries, currants, raspberries, grapes,
and such soft fruits, when intended to be disposed of in a
raw state.

The market grower of the interior will find his most
profitable culture to be principally autumn and winter
apples and pears, to which he may add quinces, and, if the
climate and soil be favorable, the grape, because all these
can be packed and transported to a great distance with
safety ; and the comparative cheapness of his lands enables
him to compete advantageously with those more favora-
bly situated in regard to market. He can only cultivate
the summer fruits with a view to drying or preserving, or
for the supply of a local demand. All orchard fruits, in-
tended for profitable orchard culture, should be, first, in
regard to the trees, hardy, vigorous, and productive. The
fruits should be of good size, fair appearance, good keep-
ers, and of good quality. It should be borne in mind
that many of the best fruits are very unprofitable for
general market culture. Under certain circumstances
this may not be the case, as, for example, in the neigh-
borhood of such a city as London, or Paris, or even New
York, or Boston. A class of people is to be found in
such places who will pay almost any price for extra fine
fruits. Where apples can be sold for $2 per bushel, pears
at $1 per dozen, grapes at $1 per pound, and other fine
fruits in proportion, growers are warranted in cultivating
very choice sorts, even if they be difficult to manage and

184 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

comparatively unproductive. As a general thing, how-
ever, taking the markets as they are, the great bulk of
consumers preferring fruit of tolerable good quality and
moderate prices to the very best at twice or three times
the ordinary price, the most profitable varieties will be
those that can be produced at the least expense, provided,
always, that they be good ; for fruits of a decidedly in-
ferior quality, whatever may be their other merits, are
wholly unworthy of cultivation for the market. Another
thing is the selection of varieties that succeed best in the
locality where they are to be cultivated. A variety that
succeeds remarkably well in any particular locality should,
other things being nearly equal, be cultivated largely.
The Newtown Pippin apple, for instance, is a profitable
orchard fruit on Long Island and on the Hudson ; but in
Western New York no system of management would
make it yield one-fourth as much net profit as the Baldwin,
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, or Roxbury
Russet. Large plantations, for profit, should always be
made up of well-proved varieties, that have been tested
in the locality, or one similar, in regard to soil and situa-
tion. A list of select varieties will be given in a succeed-
ing and separate part of the work.

6th. Selection of Trees. — For the farmer's orchard,
where the ground among the trees is to be cultivated
mainly with the plow, and occasionally cropped, stand-
ard trees, with stems four or five feet in hight, will be
the most eligible, and ought to be, at the time of planting,
three or four years old from the bud or graft, well grown,
with stout, straight, well-proportioned trunks. Low,
stout trees are always preferable to tall, slender ones. In-
experienced planters are generally more particular about
the hight than the diameter of the trunk, but it should
be just the reverse. If trees are stout, and have good
roots, a foot in hight is comparatively unimportant, un-
less to one who wishes to turn cattle into his orchard, and

THE ORCHARD. 185

have the heads of his trees at once out of their way. Few
people, however, follow such a practice. In very elevated
and exposed situations, low trees are to be preferred, as
the wind does not strike them with such force as it does
the tall ones.

7th. Arrangement of the Trees. — The distance between
the trees in an apple orchard should be thirty feet from
tree to tree, in all directions. In a very strong and deep
soil, where the trees attain the largest size,/brfc/ feet is
not too much, especially after the first fifteen or twenty
years. There is a great difference between the sizes that
different varieties attain, and also in their habits of
growth. One will attain nearly double the size of another
within ten years. Some are erect in their habits (as fig.
3), others spreading (as fig. 5) ; and it will add greatly to
the symmetry of the plantation if the trees of the same
size and habit of growth be planted together. Varieties
that ripen about the same time should also be planted
together, as the maturity can be more easily watched,
and the fruit gathered with much less inconvenience.
The largest fruits, being most liable to be blown off,
should be placed in the least exposed quarter.

The ordinary arrangement of orchard trees is the
square or regular form, in rows, the same distance apart,
and an equal distance between each tree. Thus, in plant-
ing a square of one hundred feet, for example, the trees
to be twenty-five feet apart, we commence on one side,
laying a line the whole length. On this line we measure
off the distances for the trees, and place a stake, indica-
ting the point for the tree. Thus, in fig. 96, we have five
rows of five trees each, making twenty-five in all, and all
twenty-five feet apart. This is the simplest, and probably
the best for very small orchards. The better plan for
large orchards is what is called quincunx (fig. 97), in
which the trees of one row are opposite the spaces in the
next. In this way, although the trees are at equal dis-

186

PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

tances, there is a larger clear area around each tree. In
fig. 96, the square form, every tree stands in the corner
of a square, in the centre of, and equally distant from,
four others. In the quincunx, every tree stands in the
angle of a triangle of equal sides, and in the centre of,
and equally distant from, six others. Thus, in the latter,

L. <

t- <

> <

L 4

^ J

L <

1 1

^ '

• <

* <

•••-£

/ 10 20 30 4-0 50

loo rr.

Fig. 96. — SQUARE PLANTING. Fig. '97. — QUINCUNX PLANTING.

there is a greater space left for the admission of light and
air, and trees so planted may be at less distance than in
the other. The operation of planting is more compli-
cated than that of the square, the ro\vs not being the
same distance apart as the trees are in the row. The
first thing to be done is to find the two measures. Sup-
pose, for instance, we propose to plant a plot of ground
one hundred feet square, and to have the trees twenty-
five feet apart every way, we make a triangle of wood,
Ay jB, D (fig. 97), each side of which is twenty-five feet ;
we then measure the distance from the angle, B, to the
center of the opposite side, at C, and this gives us the
distance between the rows, which will be about twenty-
one feet. This will be called the small measure ; and

THE ORCHARD. 187

with this we measure off on two sides the distances for
the rows, and put down a stake at each. We then com-
mence on the first row, and with the long (twenty-five
feet) measure mark off the places for the trees, and put
down a stake to each. The measurements must be made
with exactness, in order to have the plantation present a
regular appearance, as in fig. 97.

8th. Selection of Trees for the Market or Commercial
Orchard. — The remarks made in reference to the selec-
tion of standard trees for the family orchard may be
applied with equal propriety to these ; but the orchardist
must be supposed to have invested a considerable amount
of capital, and probably devotes his entire attention to
his trees, and depends upon them for his support. It is,
therefore, a great object with him to have early returns
in the form of products. An orchard of standard apples
will not procfuce any considerable quantity of fruit before
the eighth or tenth year, nor pears before the twelfth or
fifteenth year. In the mean time it is highly desirable
to occupy the ground amongst the trees in some way that
will at least bear the expenses of cultivation. If this
can be done, it is as much as can be expected in the
usual practice of cultivating root crops. The most pro-
fitable manner of turning to account the spaces between
the standard trees for the first ten or twelve years at
least, is to plant them with dwarf and pyramidal trees, or
dwarf standards, that will commence bearing the third or
fourth year after planting. This is the course pursued by
the orchardists of France and Belgium, where land is
valuable, and the cultivators are compelled to turn every
inch of it to the best account. Attention has been
slightly called to this mode of management in this
country, and a few persons have already carried it into
practice. As soon as it comes to be considered, it cannot
fail to recommend itself to those who are embarking
extensively in the orchard culture of fruits for the market,

188

PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

on high-priced lands. It is only surprising that it should
have been so long overlooked by shrewd and enterprising
orchardists. An acre of land, for example, planted with
standard apple-trees, at thirty feet apart, contains forty-
five to fifty ; and if we fill up the spaces with dwarfs
on Paradise, at six feet apart, leaving ten feet clear around
each standard, we get in about five hundred dwarf trees.
These will bear the third year, and during the next five
years the average value of their products will be at
least twenty to fifty cents each. We would plant them
in such a way that the plow and cultivator could be

Fig. 98. Fig. 99.

Fig. 98, orchard of standard and dwarf apple trees. Fig. 99, orchard of standard
and dwarf or pyramidal pears.

used among them, two dwarfs between each standard, and
two full rows between each row of standards, as in fig. 98.

In ten or twelve years the dwarfs might be taken out,
and the entire ground given to the standards.

Orchards of standard pears may, in the same manner,
be filled up with dwarf and pyramidal trees on the quince.

THE OKCHARD. 189

Standard pears do not require so much apace as apples ;
their branches generally are more erect. In this country
standard pears should not have naked trunks over three
or four feet high, and twenty-five feet apart are quite suf-
ficient ; at this distance an acre will contain about seventy
trees. These, as a general thing, will not begin to bear
until the tenth year, unless artificial means be resorted to.
Some early-bearing sorts, like the Bartlett, may com-
mence bearing much sooner ; but, as a general thing, the
crop from standard pears is not of much account until
the trees have attained ten years of age, or thereabouts.
By putting one dwarf standard between each, in the
same row, and a row ten feet apart between each row of
standards, as in fig. 99, we can plant 250 dwarfs or pyra-
mids, that will commence bearing the third year, and will
be in full bearing the fifth, yielding not less, on an aver-
age, than $1 to $2 per tree.

In selecting varieties of pears for profitable orchard
culture on the quince, those only should be chosen which
have been well proved on that stock, and also in the lo-
cality, or a similar one, and that are popular in market.
Mr. Quinn, in his book " Pear Culture for Profit," states
that the Duchesse d'Angouleme is almost the only one
really profitable in his soil, in New Jersey.

The following sorts succeed well on the quince, and are
profitably grown here : Louise Bonne de Jersey, Duchesse
cTAngoultme, JSeurre cVAnjou, Howell, Josephine de
Malines, Vicar of Winkfield, to which I might add many
others.

Peach trees should be only one year old from the bud,
and set at a distance of about fifteen feet. At this dis-
tance the trees soon grow to afford each other considera-
ble shelter. Mr. W. C. Flagg, of Alton, 111., an orchard-
ist of experience, writes in Tilton's Magazine, Novem-
ber, 1869, that he plants his large peach orchards in
squares of 100 trees, at sixteen and a half feet apart each

190 PEBMANENT PLANTATIONS.

way. Each square is composed wholly of one sort, for con-
venience in gathering the fruit. Each square is separated
from the next by a double space, or two rods. Mr. Flagg
objects to mixed orchards, as of apples and peaches, on
account of certain difficulties of cultivation. There may
be some force in his objection in his locality, but, accord-
ing to my experience, there is none at the East. Where
land is cheap, there is nothing gained by mixing. Where
land is worth from $200 to $500 per acre, the case is quite
different.

Standard cherries, on Mazzard stocks, should not be
over two years old from the bud, with stems three or four
feet high. In the West and South, where the trees are
subject to the bursting of the bark on the trunk, it is ad-
visable to have the trees branched as near the ground as
possible ; and in such cases the Mahaleb stock is better
than the Mazzard, as it makes lower, more compact, and
fertile trees. Orchards of pyramids, or low dwarfs, on
the Mahaleb, may be planted at twelve feet apart, or the
ground may be more compactly filled by planting stand-
ards and dwarfs alternately, as in the case of the pears.
Cherries, on the Mahaleb, I would prefer to be only one year
from the bud, and, indeed, this is my choice on any stock.

Apricots, on peach stocks, may be planted in the same
soil, and should be of the same age and character as the
peaches. On plum stocks they are better adapted to
heavy soils.

Plum-trees, for orchard standards, should be about two
years old from the bud or graft, with stems about three
feet high. The stone fruits, in particular, should have
low stems, as they are more subject to the gum on the
trunk if pruned up high. They may be planted at fif-
teen feet apart, the same as peaches and apricots. Quinces
should be two years old, at least, and may be three from
the layer, cutting, or bud ; they may be planted twelve
feet apart, which gives about 300 to the acre.

THE ORCHARD. 191

9th. Pruning and Preparing the Trees for Planting. —
When a tree is taken up from the nursery, it unavoida-
bly loses some of its roots, and others are more or less
mutilated ; the roots frequently suffer by long carriage or
exposure, and in this state it is unable to support the
entire head as it came from the nursery. This has been
previously explained. In order that a tree may grow, it
is necessary that a balance should exist between the stem
or branches, and the root ; consequently, when a tree is
transplanted, its branches should be reduced by shorten-
ing so as to correspond with the roots. A standard tree,
that has four or five branches forming a head, should be
pruned, at the time of planting, to within three or four
buds of the base of each of the branches. These remain-
ing buds, receiving all the nourishment, will push vigor-
ously, whilst, if the branches had been allowed to remain
entire, they would have required a greater supply of food
than the roots could have furnished, and the tree would
either have died or made a very feeble growth. Every
bud we leave on the top of a tree will produce either
leaves or shoots, and these are so many new individuals
requiring sustenance. If we leave one hundred, it is
plain the demand will be much greater than if we leave
only twenty. The roots must be dressed by cutting back
all bruised points to the sound wood, with a smooth cut
on the iinder side of the root. Trees thus prepared are
ready for planting.

10th. Planting Orchards. — When the soil has been
thoroughly prepared by subsoil plowing, or trenching the
season previous, the planting is a simple matter ; but if this
has not been done, planting properly requires considerable
labor ; for large holes, three or four feet wide, and one and a
half to two feet deep, must be dug for the trees, and the re-
quisite composts procured to be mixed with the earth in
which the roots are to be placed. The planting offers an ex-
»cellent opportunity for supplying any defects in the soil;

192 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

for instance, if too compact, sand, leaf mould, muck, etc.,
may be added, to render it more porous ; and if too light,
clay, stiff loam, ashes, etc., may be added, to make it more
retentive. The proper way to furnish these materials is
to dig large holes, and put a good bed, twelve to eighteen
inches deep, of the compost in the bottom under the trees.
Lime should form a part of all composts, and especially
for the apple and pear ; half a peck may be mixed with
the bed of each tree in soil not naturally calcareous. In
digging the holes, the good surface soil should be laid on
one side, so that it can be used to fill in among the roots,
and for this purpose it should be as finely pulverized as
possible. In a soil adapted to fruit culture, if in a good
state of fertility, there is no necessity for either large
holes or compost. Our mode of planting is simply to
prepare the land by a thorough plowing, and then dig the
holes just deep and wide enough to admit the roots, using
neither manure nor compost.

When the compost has been laid in the bottom of the
hole, and a layer of fine surface soil spread over it, so as
to be highest in the center, the tree is set on it, so that
when the planting is finished, the collar will be about two
inches below the surface. In the case of trees on dwarf
stocks, such as pears on quince, all the stock must be under
the ground. The roots must be carefully adjusted, so that
each one is spread out in its natural position ; the fine
earth is then filled in amongst them, so that no vacancies
will be left ; the upper roots should be held back by the
person who holds the tree until the lower ones are covered.
When the filling-in is half done, it mny be gently trodden
down with the foot, so as to give the tree a firmer hold
of the ground ; and when the filling-in of earth on the
roots is finished, tread down firmly. In advanced spring
planting, a pail of water might be given to each tree
when the earth is partly filled in ; at other times it is un-
necessary, if not injurious. «

THE ORCHARD. 193

llth. Staking. — Where the trees are large, or the situ-
ation is exposed, either one or two stakes should be plant-
ed with each tree, to which it must be kept fastened for
the first season, until the roots have fixed themselves in
the ground. A proper provision must be made to pre-
vent the tree from rubbing or chafing against the stake.
When two stakes are used, it may be fastened to each in
such a way as not to rub against either.

12th. Mulching. — This should be looked upon as an
indispensable operation in all cases. It consists in laying
on the surface of the ground, around the trees, to the dis-
tance of three feet or so, a covering two or three inches
deep of half-decomposed manure, short straw, hay, etc.,
or litter of any kind, that may be at hand. This prevents
the moisture of the soil from evaporating, and maintains
a uniformity of heat and moisture which is highly favor-
able to the formation of new roots. It also prevents the
growth of weeds around the tree, and obviates the ne-
cessity of hoeing, dressing, or watering, during the season.
We frequently practise it among nursery rows of late,
spring-planted trees with great advantage. A deep
mulching should always be given to fall-planted trees, to
prevent the frost from penetrating to the roots or draw-
ing up the tree.

13th. After-management of Orchard Trees. — This con-
sists in the cultivation of the soil among the trees, and
pruning them to regulate their growth. For the first five
or six years after planting, the ground among orchard
trees may be advantageously cropped with potatoes, ruta-
bagas, or sugar beets. The manuring and culture that
these roots require keep the soil in good condition, and
will assist in defraying the expenses of the orchard.
Grain crops should never be planted among trees, as they
deprive them of air to a very injurious extent. If no
root crops are cultivated, the ground should be kept clean
and mellow with the one-horse plow and cultivator, the
9

194 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

same as recommended for nursery culture. Every third
or fourth year, or when their growth indicates the need
of it, the trees should receive a dressing of well-decom-
posed manure or compost, spread on the surface of the
ground, over the roots, or partially worked in with a fork.
This should always be done in the fall. Dwarf apples
and pears require more frequent and liberal manuring
than standards, because their roots occupy a limited
space ; their heads are large compared with the roots,
and they bear exhausting crops. Whoever has a large
plantation of these trees should be well provided with
heaps of compost, a year old, and give each tree a peck
to half a bushel every year before the setting in of win-
ter. This will maintain their vigor, and insure large
and regular crops of fine fruit.. Directions for pruning
and forming the heads of standard trees will be treated
of under the general head of pruning. A good way of
renewing the soil where manure cannot be had is to sow
peas, and when they are grown just to blossom, plow
them under.

There are those who advocate seeding orchards with
some of the finer grasses, such as are used for lawns, and
keeping it cut short. The advantage claimed is, that it
protects the roots from excessive heat in the summer. I
think this may answer tolerably well for the apple, but
for all others, and even for that, I should prefer a mulch-
ing of straw, hay, or some sort of litter, during the great-
est heat of summer. At the North we do not even need
this.

In some parts of the West and South, where the pear
suffers from leaf blight, mulching during the warm sea-
son is a necessity, and will, I am sure, prove far more
beneficial than grass, no matter how short it may be kept.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 195

SECTION 3. — THE FRUIT GARDEN.

The fruit garden is a plantation of fruit-trees, intended
to supply the family with fruit. In some cases, where a
large supply of fruit is wanted, and the proprietor has
land and means to warrant it, a certain portion of ground
is wholly devoted to it ; and in others it forms a separate
compartment of the kitchen garden, or is mixed with it —
the fruit-trees occupying the borders, or outsides of the
compartments, and the culinary vegetables the interior.
The latter is most general, in this country, at the present
time. In a country like ours, so well adapted to fruit
culture, where almost every citizen not only occupies but
owns a garden, and, as a general thing, possesses suffi-
cient means to enable him to devote it to the culture of
the higher and better class of garden productions, the
fruit garden is destined to be, if it is not already, an ob-
ject of great importance. In the old countries of Europe,
the rich alone, or those comparatively so, are permitted
to enjoy such luxury ; for land is so dear that working
people are unable to purchase it, and if they are, they are
either unable to stock it with trees, or their necessities
compel them to devote it to the production of the
coarsest articles of vegetable food that can be produced
in the greatest bulk. It is not so in America. Here
every industrious man, at the age of five-and-twenty,
whatever may be his pursuits, may, if he choose, be
the proprietor of a garden of some extent, and possess
sufficient means to stock it with the finest fruits of the land.

The present actual state of the population gives abun-
dant evidence of this happy and prosperous condition.
Let us look at our cities and villages. In Rochester,
excepting a narrow circle in its very center, every house
has its garden, varying in extent from twenty-five by one
hundred feet to an acre of ground, and not one of these
but is nearly filled with fruit-trees ; and so it is, but on a

196 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

larger scale, in all the villages of Western New York —
a section of country in winch the first white man's settle-
ment can scarcely date back over sixty years. Aside
from the beneficial results to individual and public health
and prosperity from this general union of the fruit garden
and the dwelling, it cannot fail to exercise a softening
and refining influence on the tastes, habits, and manners
of the people, and greatly strengthen their love of home
and country.

The great thing wanting at this moment is a knowledge
of the correct method of planting and managing fruit
gardens. We cannot pass along the streets a rod, where
there is a garden, without seeing and feeling that three-
fourths of the profit and pleasure which gardens might
afford, are sacrificed to bad management, arising, in the
main, from ignorance of the proper modes of culture
adapted to such limited grounds ; and it is hoped that
the suggestions and plans offered in the following detail
of fruit-garden management may afford at least a portion
of the information wanted.

The formation of a fruit garden requires a considera-
tion of the soil, situation, inclosures, laying out, selection
of trees, selection of varieties, and planting.

1st. The Situation. — This is generally governed by the
particular circumstances of the proprietor, those only
who build with reference to the location of the garden, or
who have a large domain at their disposal, having an
opportunity of selection to any considerable extent. Per-
sons who live in cities and villages have to make the
best of their situation. As it is, if it be exposed, they
can only give it protection by lofty inclosures, that will
break the force of the winds. The aspect they cannot
alter, and must adapt other circumstances to it. Those
who can should select a situation convenient enough to
the dwelling to render it at all times easy of access, in
order to save time and labor in going to and from it. It

THE FKUIT GARDEN. 197

should also be sheltered from the north and west winds.
The former are destructive to the blossoms in spring,
and the latter frequently blow off the fruit before its
maturity. In sections of the country subject to late
spring frosts, an elevated situation is to be preferred, as
in the case of orchards. A full eastern or southern aspect
should be avoided, because in both the sun's rays strike
the trees while the frost is upon them, and produce in-
juries that would be avoided in other aspects. Where
artificial shelter is required, a belt of rapid-growing trees,
composed of evergreens and deciduous trees mixed, should
be planted on the exposed side, but at such a distance as
to obviate any difficulty that might arise from the injuri-
ous effects of shade, or from the roots entering the gar-
den. Such a belt of trees might, at the same time, be
made to impart a pleasing and highly ornamental appear-
ance to the grounds.

2d. The Soil is a most important consideration. As in
a garden a general collection of all the fruits is to be
grown, and that in the highest state of perfection, the
soil should be of that character' in its texture, depth, and
quality, best adapted to general purposes. It should not
only be suitable for the apple and the pear, but for the
peach, the cherry, and the plum — a good, deep, friable
loam, with a gravelly clay subsoil, and entirely free from
stagnant moisture. In this country, our warm summers
and frequent, protracted drouths render a deep soil for
a garden absolutely necessary. The means for deepening,
drying, improving, and changing the character of soils
have been already pointed out under the general head of
Soils, and need not be repeated here. Suffice it to say,
that it will always be found true economy to be liberal in
the first preparation of the soil; for after a garden is laid
out and permanently planted, improvements are always
made with greater difficulty and expense.

Inclosures. — The cheapest and most ordinary kind of

198 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

inclosure for gardens, in this country, is the tight board
fence, and the picket or paling fence. The former should
be made of stout cedar posts, set at six feet apart and
three or four feet in the ground, the ends being previously
charred, or covered with hot gas-tar, to increase their
durability, connected in the middle and on the top with
cross-bars, or rails, which may be two by four inches.
The boards should be well seasoned, matched, and se-
curely nailed to the cross-bars. Where the fence is
required to be higher than the posts, the boards can ex-
tend above the top rail two, three, or even four feet, if
necessary. The picket or paling fence is made in the
same way, as far as the framework, posts, and cross-bars
go ; but, instead of matched boards, pickets, from three
to six inches wide, and pointed on the top, are used, and
a space of two inches left between each. Where the pro-
prietor can afford the expense of a brick or stone wall, it
will prove the most permanent, and, in the end, the cheap-
est inclosure. The hight of the fence or wall depends
somewhat on the extent of the garden. In ordinary cases,
eight or ten feet are the proper hight, but when the gar-
den is very small, five or six feet are enough ; and the open
paling will be preferable, except on the north side, to the
tight board fence, as it offers less obstruction to the air
and light. A high fence around a very small garden, be-
sides being injurious to vegetation in it, looks quite out
of character, giving to it the appearance of a huge box.
Live hedges, as recommended for orchards, might be
employed around country gardens of considerable extent,
say an acre or upwards, but they require to be kept in the
neatest possible condition.

Trellises. — In England, and other parts of Europe,
where the summer temperature is not so high as it is here,
espalier trees are trained directly on the garden walls or
fence ; but our hot sun renders this unsafe, except in the
case of the grape, or on the north sides of the walls. The

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 199

sun strikes the south side of a fence with such force that
the foliage in contact with it is burned. It is therefore
necessary, where the walls or fences are to be occupied
with espaliers, to erect suitable trellises at the distance of
six to twelve inches from them, on which to train the
trees. The form of these differs according to the nature
of the subject to be trained. They are generally made of
upright and cross-bars, of inch boards, three inches wide,
placed within six to twelve inches of each other, accord-
ing to the growth of the species ; the larger the foliage
and the longer the shoots, the greater may be the dis-
tances ; thus, the grape twelve inches, and the peach
eight. Sometimes they are constructed of wooden bars
and wire rods alternately ; these answer a good purpose
for the grape, as it fixes itself to the wires by the tendrils.
The trellis is fastened to the wall by iron hooks, and
should stand a little farther from it at the bottom than at
the top, for the purpose of giving the tree a better ex-
posure to the sun, rain, etc. Fruits are grown so suc-
cessfully in this country in the open ground that walls or
trellises are seldom used, except to economize space. In
the North, however, where the more tender fruits do not
succeed in the open ground, walls may be advantageously
employed, as the trees trained on them are easily pro-
tected both from winter and spring frosts.

Laying Out the Fruit Garden. — This is the arrange-
ment or distribution of the ground into suitable plots or
compartments, necessary walks, etc. The mode of doing
this depends on the size of the garden, and the manner in
which it is to be planted. Fruit gardens, properly speak-
ing, are such as are wholly devoted to fruits ; but a very
common form, as has been already observed, is the mixed
garden, where a portion only is devoted to fruits, and the
remainder to culinary vegetables. We will first consider

The Fruit Garden proper. — In all fruit gardens the
number of walks should be no greater than is absolutely

200

PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

necessary for convenience. In small

iiiiiii

Fig. 100. — PLAN OF A SMALL FRUIT GARDEN.

places, the better
plan appears to
be to carry the
principal walk
around the out-
side, leaving as
much as possible
of the interior,
where air and
light are enjoyed
to the greatest
extent, for the
trees. A border
should be left be-
tween the fence
and the walk, of
sufficient width
for the trees to
be trained on the
fence trellis. If
appearances were
to be strictly ob-
served, this bor-
der should be as
wide as the fence
is high, but, as
a general thing,
five to six feet
will be sufficient ;
and wh ere

ground is limited, appearance must, in many cases, be
sacrified to economy. Where the work is all performed
by manual labor, the walks need not be more than five
to six feet wide, as that admits of the passage of a wheel-
barrow, and this is all that is required.

Fig. 100 is a design for a very small garden, fifty feet by

THE FRUIT GAKDEN. 201

one hundred. A is the entrance gate, four feet wide ;
JS, _Z?, a walk, five feet wide ; (7, (7, fence border, six feet
wide. The rows of trees are eight feet apart. The pyram-
idal pears and cherries, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, at seven feet
apart in the row. N"os. 5 and 6, dwarf apples, at four
feet apart. No. 7, pyramidal or dwarf standard plums,
at seven feet. JSTos. 8, 9, and 10, low standard peaches,
at ten feet apart, the outside ones four feet from the walk.
ITos. 11, 12, 13, and 14, low standard quinces, etc. ISTos.
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20, espaliers, apricots, grapes, etc.
One border is filled with gooseberries and currants, the
other can be occupied with raspberries and strawberries.
This arrangement gives in this little garden twenty pyram-
idal trees, thirteen standards, twelve dwarfs, six espal-
iers, besides space enough for two dozen currants, two
dozen gooseberries, two dozen raspberries, etc. For sev-
eral years a few strawberries and low vegetables, such as
lettuces, radishes, beets, carrots, turnips, or even dwarf
pea*, may be grown in the spaces among the trees, but iu
no case to be permitted nearer than within three feet of
a tree. In regard to distance between trees, my ex-
perience is, that where a good crop is of more importance
than a great variety, dwarf and pyramidal trees of the
pear, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, nectarine, and quince,
should have ten to twelve feet. This distance would re-
duce the number of trees in the plan (fig. 100).

The mixed, or fruit and kitchen garden, is laid out in
a similar manner. The trees are planted in rows, on a bor-
der six to ten feet wide, according to the size of the trees,
along the walks, leaving the interior of the compartments
for vegetables. This arrangement is a very common one,
and generally answers a very good purpose ; but where
it is practicable, it is much better to devote a separate
portion exclusively to fruit, in order that the one may not
in any way interfere with the other. In such a garden,
the number of the walks, and consequently fruit borders,
9*

202 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

will depend upon the proportion of the ground intended
to be allotted to fruit ; and this again will be regulated by
the means, taste, and demands of the family.

The frontispiece of this work gives the plan of a mixed
fruit and kitchen garden, one hundred and fifty feet wide
by two hundred long, being one hundred and ten square
rods ; somewhat less than three-quarters of an acre. The
design is to have two tree borders exclusive of the outside
or fence border. The center main walk, from A. to (7, is
ten feet wide. That crossing it in the center, six feet
wide. The small walk, next the fence border, four feet
wide, and that between the two tree borders, five feet.
The fence border is six feet wide, and may be planted
with espalier trees, vines, etc., besides currants, raspber-
ries, strawberries, or anything of low growth, not requir-
ing the fullest exposure. The tree borders are all eight
feet wide, except the dwarf-apple border, which is only
six. The outside border is planted on the two sides with
low standard or pyramidal peaches, apricots, plums,
quinces, etc., at twelve feet apart, and the two ends with
pyramids, at eight feet.

The inside borders are planted with pyramids and
dwarfs, the former at eight, and the latter at six feet
apart. A, is the entrance ; B, well or cistern ; (7, a space
to turn a horse and cart upon. This arrangement gives
thirty standard trees, eighty-three pyramids, and forty
dwarfs, leaving clear the outside border, over six hundred
and sixty feet long, and six wide, and the four interior
compartments, each about thirty by sixty feet. In crop-
ping the latter with vegetables, they may be divided, as
in the design, into narrow beds, three or four feet wide,
separated by paths, eighteen inches wide. In gardens of
greater extent, it will be well to increase the distance be-
tween the trees.

Walks in the Fruit Garden. — The number of these, as
has been remarked, should be simply sufficient for con-

THE FKTJIT GARDEN. 203

ducting the operations of gardening with convenience ;
this being provided for, the fewer the better. Where
horse labor is employed, the main walk, either through
the center or around the sides, should be nine or ten feet
wide. Where manual labor alone is employed, as in
small gardens, five or six feet will be sufficient, and even
four feet, as that admits of the passage of a wheelbarrow.
Between each compartment, or line of trees, there should
also be a path, two or three feet wide, as a passage for
the gardener or workmen, and others who may desire to
inspect the trees. Where the expense can be afforded,
the main walks should be gravelled, so as to be dry and
comfortable at all seasons, and in every state of the wea-
ther ; for it is presumed that every man who has a fruit
garden, worthy of the name, will wish to visit it almost
daily, and so will the members of his family and his
friends who visit him. The labor and expense of making
a walk depends upon the nature of the soil. If dry,
with a porous subsoil, absorbing water rapidly, six
inches of good pit gravel, slightly rounded on the top,
will be sufficient. If the soil be damp and the subsoil
compact, it will be necessary to remove the earth to the
depth of a foot in the center, and rising towards the sides,
so that the excavation will resemble a semicircle ; this is
filled with small stones, and a few inches • of good pit
gravel on the top. This makes a walk dry at all times.
We often see very comfortable and neat-looking walks
made of spent bark from the tannery ; six inches deep of
this will last two or three years, and no excavation is
necessary in any kind of soil. It is not to be supposed
that so great expense will be incurred, in any case, in the
formation of the walks of a fruit or kitchen garden, as
those of a pleasure ground or flower garden, and there-
fore it is unnecessary to suggest either costly modes or
materials. The chief point is to secure dry, comfortable
walking, without introducing any material that will

204 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

produce a decidedly unpleasant contrast with vegetation.
This can all be accomplished by the cheap and simple
means referred to, and others that may suggest them-
selves.

The main walks alone should be gravelled ; the smaller
alleys, or paths, between the different lines of trees or com-
partments of the garden, are principally for the use of the
workmen. In very small gardens, where it is important
to economize the ground, the spaces devoted to the walks
may be of plank, raised on pillars or blocks a foot from
the ground ; the roots of trees can then penetrate the
ground below the walk as well as the border, and scarce
any ground will be lost.

Water. — A supply of water in the garden is a most
important consideration in our warm, dry, sunny climate.
Good crops of culinary vegetables cannot be secured in
many seasons without a liberal application of water; and
fruit-trees are greatly benefited by frequent showering,
especially in dry weather. It refreshes them and drives
away insects. A good well or cistern should therefore
be provided in every garden, and be situated as near the
center as possible, to be convenient to all parts.

SELECTION OF TUBES.

Their Form. — We sturt upon the principle that, in
all cases, tall standard trees, such as are usually planted
in orchards, are totally unfit for the garden. This is the
chief defect in American fruit gardening. All the trees
for a fruit garden should be either dwarf 'standards, with
trunks two to three feet high, pyramids, branched from
the ground, or bushes, with stems six to twelve inches
high. Trees in these forms are, in the first place, in keep-
ing with the limited extent of the garden, and convey, at
first sight, the idea of fitness. In the second place, they
give a great variety on a small space, for three or four

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 205

such trees will not occupy more space than one standard.
In the third place, they are in a convenient form for man-
agement ; they are easily pruned or protected, and the
fruit is easily gathered, and less likely to be blown off

Fig. 101. — PYRAMIDAL APPLE-TREE.

than on tall trees. Finally, they bear several years sooner
than standards.

Among the forms mentioned, the pyramid is certainly
the most beautiful ; and in the best fruit gardening
regions of Europe, where almost every conceivable form
of tree has been tried, it is to-day the most popular,

206 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

because it has proved the most advantageous and success-
ful. The apple for pyramids (fig. 101) should be on the
Doucin stock. Certain varieties, such as the Hawthorn-
den, Keswitik Codlin, Summer Rose, Duchess of Olden-
burg, and many other moderate growers and early bearers,
will make good pyramids on free stocks, but they will
require more summer pruning and careful management to
keep their vigor under check than they would on the
Doucin. But apples for the fruit garden, even on the

Fig. 102. — DWARF BUSH APPLE-TREE.

Doucin, should be such as naturally make small trees, and
are inclined to early bearing. In these respects, it is very
well known there is a wide difference between varieties.
Those mentioned above, and others similar in character,
frequently bear, on free stocks in the nursery rows, at the
age of three or four years from the burl, whilst others do
not bear until eight or ten years old. This is a point that
should always be regarded in selecting garden trees ; for
it is the natural and proper desire of every one who
plants a tree in the garden to obtain fruit from it ns early
as possible.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 207

The Apple for Dwarfs. — The apple, worked on the
Paradise, makes a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know
of nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a
row or a little square of these miniature apple-trees (fig.
102), either in blossom or in fruit. Those who have not
seen them may imagine an apple-tree, four feet high, and
the same in width of branches, covered with blossoms in
the spring, or loaded with magnificent golden and crim-
son fruit in the autumn. They begin to bear the third
year from the bud, and the same variety is always larger
and finer on them than on standards. We have had Red
Astrachans on Paradise that measured eleven inches in
circumference. The French plant a square or compart-
ment of these in the kitchen or fruit garden, as they do
gooseberries and currants, six feet apart ; they also alter-
nate them with pyramidal pear-trees, in rows; and in
some of the best mixed kitchen and fruit gardens two
dwarf apples are planted between two pyramidal pears,
thus giving double the number of apples as of the pears
in a border or row. In small gardens, the apple should
not be admitted under any other form, and even to a
limited extent in that ; for it is the great fruit of the
orchard, and in nearly all parts of this country extensive-
ly grown, and can be purchased at very moderate rates.

Dwarf Apple trained in Horizontal Cordon. — In Eu-

Fig. 103.— APPLE CORDON (Single).

ropean gardens, the dwarf apple is frequently trained
on what are called " horizontal cordons " along: the walk

borders, and are very pretty objects.

The cordon, as the drawing (fig. 103) shows, consists

208

PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

of single stems, or arms, trained horizontally on a wire or
wooden rail, about ten or twelve inches from the ground.

Fig. 104. — APPLE CORDON (Double).

This stem, or cordon, is kept furnished with fruit spurs, and
produces fruit on its entire length. The cordon may be either
single or double. The single consists of a single stem, or

arm, and the double
of a pair of arms,
one trained to each
side, as in fig. 104.
The Pear as a
Pyramid (fig. 10.~>).
— The pear is emi-
nently the tree for
the pyramidal form,
either on the free
stock or on the
quince. On the lat-
ter, however, the
trees bear much ear-
lier, are more pro-
lific, more manage-
able, and conse-
quently preferable
for small gardens.
On the pear stock
they require con-
stant summer prun-
ing: and pin chin £r

Fiff. 105.— PYRAMIDAL PEAR-TREE. °_ .

7 feet high; 4 feet wide at the base. and> m 8Ome CaSGS>

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 209

root pruning, to subdue the natural vigor, and induce
early fruitfulness. Certain varieties, however, do not
succeed on the quince, but a large number of melting
varieties do, and produce larger and finer fruit on it
than on the free stock. The tardiness of bearing of
the pear-tree, when grown in the ordinary standard
form, on pear stock, has, more than any other cause,
retarded its general cultivation. No better proof of
this can be adduced than the general partiality now
shown for trees on quince stocks that bear at the age of
three or four years. The introduction of these trees, a
few years ago, was really the first thing that gave a gen-
eral impulse to pear-tree planting. With most people, it
is a very important thing to obtain fruit in two or three
years, instead of waiting eight or ten. The best man-
agement of trees on free stocks cannot bring them into a
bearing state short of six or seven years, unless it be
some remarkably precocious variety. People, therefore,
who wish pear-trees for pyramids that are easily man-
aged, and will bear early, will select them on quince
stocks, in case the varieties they wish to cultivate have
been proved to succeed well on it.

The Cherry is as easily managed in the pyramidal form
as the pear — not only the free-growing sorts, Hearts and
Bigarreaus, but the Dukes and Morellos • the latter,
however, are less vigorous, and more easily managed.
All should be worked on the Mahaleb stock ; this has, to
some extent, the same effect on the cherry as the quince
has on the pear. After the second or third year's growth,
it subdues their vigor, and induces fruitfulness. The
Dukes and Morellos should be chosen where very small
trees are desirable.

The Plum as a Pyramid. — The plum has rarely been
cultivated as a pyramid, but recent experiments prove
that it is quite susceptible of that form under proper
management. It should be worked on a stock calculated

210 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

to subdue its natural vigor. The native, or Canada plum,
and the Myrobolan, or Cherry plum, are suitable. Sum-
mer pruning and pinching, as well as occasional root
pruning, are all necessary to check the vigor of most
kinds, and keep them in suitable dimensions for small
gardens where it is necessary to plant them close. Our
specimen plum orchard consists entirely of dwarf stand-
ard and pyramidal trees, planted in rows, ten feet apart,
and eight feet apart in the ro\v. They were planted some
twelve or fifteen years ago, and aro now models of beauty
and productiveness — that, too, without any summer
pruning, root pruning, or pinching.

The Plum as a Dwarf Standard. — Besides the pyra-
mid, this is the only form in which the plum should be
admitted into the garden. The" dwarf standard, with a
trunk two or three feet in hight, and a symmetrical,
round head, is a very pretty and appropriate form, and
requires less skill and care in the management than the
pyramid ; and with proper care, the trees require but
little, if any, more space.

The Peach. — The best garden form for the peach in
this country, generally, is that of the dwarf standard,
with a trunk eighteen inches to two feet. With proper
management, which will hereafter be described, this form
is easily conducted, even when the trees are on peach
stocks. The plum stock, and especially the sorts recom-
mended for dwarf plums, give trees that are less vigor-
ous, and more easily kept in a small space. In most parts
of our country, the fruit ripens perfectly in the open
ground, so that espalier or oblique cordon training, as has
been remarked, is seldom practised, unless to save ground,
or in northern localities, where protection of the buds
during winter, or of the blossoms in the spring, is neces-
sary. In such cases alone are espaliers to be recommended,
as they require much greater care in pruning and train-
ing than any other form. Espalier trees are of various

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 211

forms, but the fan, as it is termed, is the best adapted to
the peach. It consists of two main branches or divisions
of the stem, spread out in the form of a Y; each of these
bears a certain number, as many as may be necessary
to fill the trellis, of secondary branches, and these furnish
the bearing wood. The production and management of
this and other espalier forms will be treated fully under
the head of pruning and training.

The Apricot and Nectarine. — The remarks applied to
the peach apply with equal force to both these trees ;
they succeed equally well as low standards or as espal-
iers or cordons. The apricot is more generally grown in
these forms than any other tree, because its early blossoms
are so easily protected, and the cnrculio does not appear
to be so troublesome to it as in the standard form.

The Quince, in the garden, should either be a dwarf
bush, with a stem twelve to eighteen inches high, and a
compact, symmetrical head, or a pyramid. In the latter
form it is quite easily trained, but requires more care,
of course, than as a bush, as the upper part of the tree
must always be kept subordinate to the lower, and this
requires regular and constant attention. No fruit tree
is more neglected than the quince, and yet it is a profita-
ble and most beautiful tree, either in blossom or fruit.
It well repays the care required to keep it in proper
shape.

TJie Filbert. — The remarks on the quince may be ap-
plied with equal propriety to the filbert, as regards form.
The bush, branched from the ground, and the low stand-
ards^ with two-foot stems, are the ordinary forms ; but in
some of the French gardens it is conducted with great
success as a pyramid.

These are the principal trees of which it is necessary
to speak in regard to form. Other species will be referred
to under the head of Pruning. Having now pointed out
the most eligible forms for garden trees, and their respec-

212 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

tive advantages, planters will he able to make a choice
adapted to their tastes and circumstances. Those who do
not employ a professional gardener, and who have but a
small portion of spare time to devote to their garden,
should by all means adopt such forms for their trees as
require the least skill and labor, provided always that it
be appropriate to the size of the garden, and consistent
with good management.
• The next point to be considered is,

The Age of the Trees. — This will depend very much on
circumstances. For pyramidal trees it is yet difficult, al-
most impossible, to obtain in the nurseries specimens of
more than one year's growth that are suitable. The
yearlings are never sufficiently cut back, nor the branches
of the second and third years so managed as to have the
requisite proportion of length and vigor to fit them for
being moulded, with any ordinary treatment, into a per-
fectly pyramidal form. If suitable trees cannot be found
of two or three years from the bud or graft, vigorous
yearlings, worked at the ground, should be chosen, as
they are in a condition to take easily any required form ;
and though fruit may not be soon obtained from them,
yet they will, in the end, be much more satisfactory ; for,
unless a right beginning be made in the training of a tree
in any form more or less artificial, no art can afterwards
completely correct the errors. If we take a two or three
year old tree, managed in the nursery, as usual, with a
naked trunk, two to two and a half feet from the ground,
and a branching head, or, what is nearly as bad, a few
weak side branches below, overrun with strong ones
above, the most severe process will be necessary, in order
to produce lateral branches in the proper place ; and thus
as much time will be lost as would bring forward a yearling,
and the tree will not be so perfectly formed, nor in any
respect so satisfactory. The general impatience that ex-
ists in regard to the growth and bearing of trees is the

THE FECTT GARDEX. 213

great cause of this detect ire character when taken from
the nursery. The nurserynmn is averse to cutting back his
trees, as they lose a year in bight : and planters or pur-
chasers are not generally discriminating enough to be will-
ing to pay him a proportionate price. He finds tall trees
more attractive. When planters do get these trees, they
cannot be persuaded to cut them down ; they wish to ob-
tain fruit as soon as possible, and therefore the tree is al-
lowed to proceed in the defective form it assumed at the
nursery.

For 2>KVtrr!f and JPmarf Sttrndard*. it is less difficult to
obtain the right sort of trees, tor this is the form that nur-
sery trees that have not been cut back, ordinarily assume.
Those, therefore, who prefer such trees can always be sup-
plied with them well advanced, even in a bearing state, if
so desired. As in t":e pyrainid, however, persons who
intend to make models of their trees, will do well to pro-
cure yearlings worked at the surface of the ground, for on
them, heads or lateral branches can be formed without any
difficulty at any desired point between the collar and ter-
minal bud. Another consideration is worthy of note on
this point. There is a much greater risk in removing
three or four year old trees than yearlings, and they are
more difficult and expensive to pack and transport The
yearling is easily remove 1 and easily transported, and its
growrh is comparatively unaffected by the change. The
gardeners most famous tor their handsome, well-nianased
fruit trees, invariably select yearlir.g trees, that is,, trees
that have made one year's growth from ihe bud or graft.
But it is not always practicable to procure trees of this
age, as lew of them are called for, and nursery-men dislike
to break upon their young stock before it has attained
the usual marketable age.

«$e/«y/A>w of TT?riVf*Vs. — The selection of varieties of
fruits for a fruit garden should be made in view of all the
circumstances that can affect their usefulness. They

214 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS

should be adapted to the soil, and more particularly to
the climate. It is well known that in every section of the
country, certain varieties seem to succeed remarkably
well, whilst others, of the greatest excellence elsewhere,
entirely fail. Our country is so extensive, and embraces
such a variety of climate, that it is impossible that the
same varieties should succeed equally well in all parts ;
and planters should consider this well. Those who have
had no experience in cultivation, nor a proper opportunity
for acquiring knowledge on this point, should consult
others. Any intelligent nurseryman who has a corre-
spondence with all parts of the country, and is thoroughly
alive to all the branches of his profession, and the re-
sults of experience, can aid planters greatly in making
appropriate selections. It is true that the amount of
knowledge collected on this head is yet comparatively
small, and quite insufficient for a general guide, but it is
every day accumulating, and what there may be is well
worthy of attention. The experience of fruit growers, as
elicited at recent pomological conventions, has brought
to light a multitude of highly important facts, bearing on
this very point. These will be more particularly noted
when we come to the description of fruits.

Varieties should be adapted in their growth to the form
they are to be grown in, and to the extent of the garden.
— For pyramidal trees, varieties should be chosen whose
habits of growth are regular, or slightly spreading, the
branches assuming more of the horizontal than the
upright, and those disposed to branch low down should be
preferred to those of an opposite habit. Where the gar-
den is small, moderate or slow growers should be pre
ferred to rapid and vigorous growers. They should also
be well adapted to the stock on which they are worked.
This is a very important point, but one on which only a
few persons in this country have yet acquired any con-
siderable amount of actual experience. Still, many im-

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 215

portant facts have been gathered, and it, becomes every
planter to avail himself of them. If he plants pears on
quince stocks, for instance, it is important to know that
certain varieties are much better on that stock than they
are on the pear, and that others fail and are worthless on it.
The varieties should be adapted to the wants and wishes
of the planter. — Those who plant fruit gardens have not
all the same objects in view. One man plants his garden
simply to supply his family with good fruits. This is
his main purpose. He should, therefore, select the very
best varieties, considering not the quality alone, but their
productiveness and other useful properties. Such a per-
son has no desire for a large collection, but looks merely
for an assortment that will yield a succession of ripe fruits
during the season. Another, who regards the mere value
of the fruit less than amusement, recreation, and experi-
ment, will make his . collection as varied as possible.
Where any particular class of fruits can be had very
cheap in market, it should be planted sparingly in the
garden, so that such as may be scarce or dear can be
grown in larger quantities. It is only by taking all these
into account that planters can hope to make their fruit
garden answer their particular views and purposes.

The planting of a fruit garden should be considered as
of equal importance with the building of a dwelling, so
far as the doing of it well is concerned. The dwelling is
constructed with a view to the convenience of the family,
and is, therefore, in all its parts, supposed to be adapted
to their wants and mode of living. The fruit garden is
intended, also, to promote the comfort and convenience
of the family, and should be, like the dwelling, in all
respects as nearly as possible adapted to their wants and
circumstances. Having now treated of the soil, inclos-
ures, trellises, walks, arrangement, selection of trees and
varieties, we proceed to the taking up of the trees and
planting.

216 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

Taking up the Trees. — This has already been described
under the head of Nursery Operations, to which the reader
is referred.

Planting has been described under the head, of Planting
the Orchard / and the operation being the same in both
cases, it need not be repeated.

The arrangement of the trees, however, is different, and
this point requires a special notice.

In regard to position. — Each class of trees, such as
pears, apples, cherries, etc., should be planted together in
the same rows or division, and if any difference exist in
the soil, each should be planted in that best adapted to it.
Thus, plums should have that most inclined to clay ; pears
and apples, the deepest and richest; cherries, peaches,
apricots, etc., the driest and lightest.

Where the garden is large, the pyramids should be in
one compartment, the dwarf standards in another, and the
dwarf bushes in another; but where it is necessary to
economize and fill the ground to the best advantage, the
dwarf bushes may alternate advantageously with the
pyramids or dwarf standards, and this especially along
the walk borders. Varieties, too, of the same or similar
habits of growth, should, if possible, be together. The
espalier trees should be placed so that the earliest blos-
soming kinds, such as the apricots, will be most secure
from the influence of spring frosts where these prevail ;
the trellis facing the north will be the best for this pur-
pose ; but where it is intended to protect them, the aspect
is of little account. In the north aspect, fruits are very
much retarded in their ripening; and this circumstance
may be turned to a good account to prolong the season
of some late cherries, currants, etc. We have seen fine
Morellos in perfection on a north wall here, in the month
of September.

The distance at which trees should be planted in the
garden. — This will not be the same in all cases ; for in a

THE FRUIT GAEDEN. 217

large garden it is not necessary to plant so close as in a
very small one, and in a very rich and deep soil a
greater distance will be required than in a dry and light
soil. There is also a great difference in the growth of
varieties. Some might be planted at six feet apart, and
have as much space in proportion as others would at eight.
This shows that no rule, as regards distance, can be
observed in all cases, and this particularly in small gar-
dens, where advantage should be taken of every circum-
stance. In large gardens, a uniform distance may be
adopted, even if some space be sacrificed. The following
distances may serve as a general guide, and may be in-
creased or diminished according to circumstances :

DISTANCE IN THE OPEN GEOUND.

Apples. — Pyramids, on free stock, ten feet apart ; do.,
Doucin, eight feet apart; do., dwarf standards on Doucin,
ten feet apart ; do., dwarf bushes on Paradise, five or six
feet apart.

Pears. — Pyramids on free stocks, ten to twelve feet
apart; do., on quince, ten feet apart; do., dwarf stand-
ards on quince, eight to ten feet apart.

Plums. — Dwarf standards, eight to ten feet apart ; do.,
pyramids, eight to ten feet apart.

Cherries. — Pyramids, Hearts, and Bigarreaus, eight
to ten feet apart ; do., Dukes and Morellos, six to eight
feet apart ; do., dwarf bushes of Morellos, five to six feet
apart.

Apricots. — Dwarf standard on plum, eight to ten feet
apart; do., pyramids, six to eight feet apart.

Peaches. — Low standards on peach, ten to twelve feet
apart ; do., on plum, eight to ten feet.

Nectarines. — Same as peaches.

Quinces. — Pyramids or bushes, six to eight feet apart.
10

218 PERMANENT PLANTATIONS.

Filberts, six to eight feet apart.

Gooseberries and Currants, four or five feet apart.

Raspberries, two to three feet apart.

Mr. Rivers gives the following distances in his " Minia-
ture Fruit Garden " :

Pyramidal Pear-Trees, on quince stocks, root-pruned
for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, in larger
gardens, not root-pruned, six feet apart.

Pyramidal Pear-Trees, on the pear stock, root-pruned,
six feet apart. The same, roots not pruned, eight to ten
feet — the latter if the soil be very rich.

Horizontal Espalier Pear-Trees, on the quince stock,
for rails or walls, fifteen feet apart.

Upright Espaliers, on the quince stock, for rails or walls,
four to six feet apart.

Horizontal Espaliers, on the pear stock, for rails or
walls, twenty to twenty-four feet apart.

Pyramidal Plum-Trees, six feet apart.

Espalier Plum-Trees, twenty feet apart.

Pyramidal Apple-Trees, on the Paradise stock, root-
pruned for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, roots
not pruned, six feet apart.

Espalier Apple-Trees, on the Paradise stock, fifteen feet
apart. The same, on the crab stock, twenty to twenty-
four feet apart.

Peaches and Nectarines for walls, twenty feet apart.

Apricots for walls, twenty-four feet apart.

Cherries, as bushes on the Mahaleb stock, roots pruned
for small gardens, four feet apart. The same, roots not
pruned, six feet apart.

Espalier Cherry-Trees, on the Mahaleb, for rails or
walls, twelve to fifteen feet apart.

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 219

Oblique Cordon Trees, of all varieties, two to three
feet apart.

Horizontal Cordons, of all varieties, ten to twelve feet
apart.

DISTANCES FOR ESPALIER TREES ON WALLS OR TRELLISES.

The distances between espalier trees must be regulated
not only by the growth of the species and variety, but by
the hight of the Avails or trellis. If these be low, a
greater length, of course, will be necessary than if high ;
for every tree must have a certain extent of surface to be
spread upon. Hence, if a trellis be only eight feet high,
nearly double the length, and, consequently, double the
distance between the trees, will be required that would be
on a trellis fifteen or sixteen feet high. As a general
thing, %)eaches, apricots, or nectarines, on walls or trellises
eight or ten feet high, should be fifteen to twenty feet
apart, if on free stocks, and twelve to fifteen if dwarfed
on the plum. Cherries, ten to twelve feet. Our Native
Grapes, Isabella, Catawba, etc., at twelve to fifteen feet
apart, on an eight-foot-high trellis. Foreign varieties will
not require half this ; indeed, the better way is to keep
these trained to simple stakes, and planted in the border,
where their out-door culture is attempted. In this way
they are easily laid down and protected.

220

PRUNING.

CHAPTER II.

PRUNING AND TRAINING APPLIED TO THE DIF-
FERENT SPECIES OF FRUIT-TREES UNDER
VARIOUS FORMS.

SECTION 1. — PRUNING THE APPLE AND THE PEAK.

These two trees belong to the same genus, Pyrus ;
their habits of growth and bearing are similar, and they
may therefore be treated, as regards their pruning, under
the same head.

If we take, for example, a shoot of last season (fig. 7),
we find it, in the spring, before vegetation commences,
furnished on all its length with wood-buds ; when growth
commences, the terminal bud, and probably two or three
of the others nearest to it, produce shoots ; the others to-
wards the middle produce small shoots that are, in subse-
quent years, transformed into fruit branches (like fig. 10).
Some do not push at all, but are converted into fruit-
buds (as in figs. 8 and 9), whilst those at the base gener-
ally remain dormant, until excited into growth by close
pruning. All the buds on these trees have small, incon-
spicuous buds at their base, which are capable of produc-
ing shoots when the principal bud is destroyed or injured,
and these buds render the fruit-spurs so enduring. In
young trees, the fruit-buds are many years in process of
formation, and in bearing trees, three to four years, ac-
cording to circumstances. When the trees are not sub-
jected to pruning, the result of the mode of growth
described is, that the terminal buds grow and form one
section upon another, leaving the lower parts mainly des-

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 221

titute of bearing wood, unless it be an occasional spur,
the sap always tending to the points.

Standards. — The management of this form of trees
has been fully treated of in all our works on fruit culture,
and in all the agricultural and horticultural journals, so
that now it is pretty well understood, and especially by
those who give considerable attention to the subject of
fruit-trees; it will not be necessary, therefore, to enter
upon much detail in regard to it.

A standard apple or pear tree, for the orchard, when
taken from the nursery to be finally planted out, we will
suppose to have a straight, stout trunk, four to six feet
in hight, as the case may be, and a head composed of a
certain number of shoots or branches, but generally shoots
of one year's growth. At the time of planting, three or
four of these shoots should be selected to form the main
branches, or frame- work, on which to build the whole
head, and the remainder cut clean out ; those reserved
should be cut -back full one-half, and from the shoots pro-
duced on these, at and below the cut, two of the strongest
are selected, each on opposite sides, and the others are
rubbed off while they are soft. In selecting these shoots,
care must be taken to have them equally distant from one
another, and pointing in such directions as not to cross or
interfere*

During the first season, these young shoots must be
watched and kept in a regular state of vigor. If any
threaten to become too vigorous, they must be pinched
and checked at once, so that perfect uniformity be pre-
served. This is the time to secure a well-formed and
nicely-balanced head. A very slight circumstance some-
times throws the growth into one side or one branch of a
young tree, and produces a deformity from which it never
recovers. The trunk must be kept clear of all shoots, by
rubbing off such as appear at the earliest possible moment,
when it can be done without the use of a knife. Suppos-

222

PRUNING.

ing we commenced the head with three branches at time
of planting, there will be, at the end of the first season,
six.

The attention required after this will be to maintain an
uniform growth among these six branches, and their mem-
bers and divisions, and to prevent the growth of shoots
in the center. The leading defect in all our orchard trees
is too much wood, the heads are kept so dense with
small shoots that the sun and air are, in a great measure,
excluded, and the fruit on the outside of the tree only
is marketable or fit for use. The head should be kept
open, rather in the form of a vase, so that the wood,
leaves, blossoms and fruit may all, on every part, enjoy
the full benefit of the sun and air, without which they
cannot perform their functions, or attain maturity and
perfection.

Too many people imagine that trees can take care of
themselves, as trees in the forest,
on the ground that nature pre-
serves a balance in all her works ;
but it should be borne in mind
that a fruit tree is not exactly a
natural production. It is far re-
moved from the natural state by
culture, and the farther it is re-
moved, that is, the more its nature
is refined and improved, the more
care it requires. Fig. 108 repre-
sents a young standard pear tree,
stem four feet high, and the head
twice cut back, as at the letters a
and b.

Pinching. — If this be properly
attended to, very little knife prun-
ing will be necessary, except to shorten the leading
shoots, because as soon as a superfluous or misplaced

Fig. 108.— A YOUNG
STANDARD PEAR-TREE.

Trunk 4 feet high ; head for-
ward on three main branch-
es, twice primed at A and B.

THE APPLE AND THE PEAK. 223

shoot appears, it is rubbed off", and when one becomes
too vigorous, it is pinched and checked. The great ad-
vantage of pinching is, that

1st. It economizes the sap of the tree. That which
would be expended on superfluous shoots is turned to the
benefit of the parts reserved, and thus the growth is
greatly promoted.

2d. All wounds necessarily inflicted, where knife-prun-
ing is depended on, are completely avoided. These facts
should be remembered. Standard apples and pears are
not generally pruned with a view to hastening their
bearing, but are allowed to arrive at that state in their
natural way. In the case of tardy-bearing sorts, how-
ever, it may be desirable to apply artificial means, and
these will be pointed out in treating of dwarfs and pyra-
mids hereafter.

Dwarf Standards. — These are similar to standards,
except that the trunks are low, not over two or three feet
in hight, and the head is retained in a smaller space.
Their management is always much easier when the stocks
are such as to dwarf or restrain the growth. Thus,
apples on the Paradise or Doucin^ and pears on the
quince. The main branches, or frame-work of the head,
are produced by cutting back the three or four branches
that form the head of the tree as it comes from the
nursery, in the same manner as recommended for stand-
ards.

The first season, all superfluous productions are rubbed
off, and a balance maintained among the shoots by
pinching.

The second year, in the winter or spring, the shoots of
last season are shortened, say one-half, as a general thing.
This induces the development of the buds on their lower
parts. The cut is made at a good, plump bud, capable
of producing a vigorous shoot ; and this is selected to
prolong the branch. If one or two secondary branches

224 PRUNING

are needed to fill up a space, those next the leader, if
properly situated to fill the space, are chosen, and all be-
low them are pinched when about two or three inches
long, in order to check the production of wood where it
is not wanted, and to convert them into fruit branches or
spurs. The growth of all the main and secondary
branches is regulated and balanced by pinching ; and if
the pinched shoots, intended for fruit spurs, start again
into growth, they must be again pinched.

The third season, the shoots of the previous year are cut
back as before, say to four, five, or six eyes, according to
their strength. One shoot is chosen to continue the pro-
longment of the branch, and the others are pinched in
season to convert them into fruit spurs. Thus the tree is
conducted from year to year, until it has attained the full
size required. In this wlay the trees commence bearing
quite young, and every branch is furnished, in all its
length, with fruit spurs.

Pyramids. — Under the head of "the selection of trees,"
it has been recommended to obtain thrifty yearling trees
in preference to older ones, not properly managed. We
will, therefore, begin with the yearling tree, and although
the management of the first year after cutting back has
been given in the nursery, it may be well to repeat it
here, to save the reader the trouble of referring back.

Objects of cutting back. — The object in doing this is to
produce branches near the stock, that will form the base
of the future pyramid. If left entire, the tendency of the
sap to the extremities would produce shoots there only,
leaving a naked space entirely inconsistent with the form
in view. We therefore reduce the stem to such an ex-
tent, that but a small number of buds are left on it, and
the sap, acting on these with great force, causes their
development.

Sow far to cut back. — It is obvious that this must de-
pend on the character of the subject. In yearling plants,

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 225

both of the pear and apple, there is presented a great
difference in different varieties. Some invariably pro-
duce lateral branches the first season. The buds are so
perfectly developed, that when the second growth takes
place in mid-summer, they break, and form branches, in
some cases as much as a foot long, and in others only a
few inches. Then, among the varieties which do not thus
produce side branches in the second growth, there is a
great difference in the plumpness and prominence of the
buds. In some they are larger, and stand out boldly
from the wood on the whole length of the stem, appa-
rently ready to push under the least excitement. In
others they are small, lie flat to the wood, and have
every appearance of being difficult to excite into growth,
and especially those towards the base. It should always
be borne in mind that it is better to cut too low than not
low enough. The difficulty of cutting too low is, that the
shoots produced are nearly all of equal length, and a
certain number of them require to be checked to give
each one its proper dimensions. The difficulty of not
cutting low enough is, that where we should have
branches at the base, we have none, or, if any, they are
smaller, instead of larger, than those above them. The
remedy in this case is more difficult than the other. The
vigorous shoots at the summit must be checked, and even
the leading shoot, in order to throw back the sap into the
lower parts, to act upon the buds there. The error
which produces such a difficulty is very common, as we
know by experience, among persons not familiar with
the growth of young trees or the development of the
buds on their stems. It must be laid down as a general
rule that the more feeble the plant, and the smaller and
the more imperfectly developed the buds, the lower it is
necessary to cut.

The condition of the roots, too, must be taken into
account; for where the roots are weak, broken, or injured,

226 PRUNING.

and consequently unfit to yield to the stem any considera-
ble amount of nutriment, the buds will break with less
force, and a more severe retrenchment will be necessary.
All these circumstances must be consid-
ered. For example, we will take a younr;
pear-tree, of one year's growth from the
bud, without branches (fig. 109), which
we will suppose to bo four feet, which is
the ordinary average hight of yearlings.
If the buds are full and prominent on it,
we cut to a good bud, about twenty
inches from the stock ; but if the buds
are less prominent, cut to fifteen or
eighteen inches, and if very feeble, with
small buds, cut to within twelve inches,
or five or six buds of the stock. If the
roots have been injured much, and the
stem somewhat dried or shrivelled, it
should be cut to within three or four
buds of the base. These different cases
are mentioned because it frequently hap-
pens that persons who live at a great
distance from nurseries often find their
trees, on their arrival, in the condition de-
scribed, and it is necessary that a course
of treatment for them should be indicated.
The bud cut to should, if possible, be one
of the best on the stem, and be on the
Fig. 107. side of the tree opposite that in which the
A yearling pear- bud was inserted, so as to continue the
tree without bran- gtem jn a straight line.

dies. The cross- T .

line indicates the At is a great advantage to have a tree
first pruning or we]j[ established in the ground before cut-
cutting back. . , . . 3

ting it back, to produce the first branches

to form the pyramid; because, in that condition, it is
capable of producing vigorous shoots the first season. It

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR.

227

is on this account that a young tree, cut back in the nur-
sery, presents a much more perfect form, at the end of the
second year, than those that have f

been transplanted. Some good cul-
tivators advise to defer the cut-
ting back for the formation of the
permanent branches until the plant
has stood one year after transplant-
ing ; but this course is attended
with many difficulties, and, on the
whole, it is better to cut back when
the tree is planted, even if we ob-
tain but a moderate growth; for
the older the buds are on the lower
part of the tree, the more obstinate
and unmanageable they are. If we
fail to accomplish our ends in the
first cutting, we can repeat it the
next year.

Pruning the Branched Yearling.
— Among trees of this kind, some
have branches a foot or more in
length, while in others they resem-
ble short, stiff spurs, two to four
inches long. These two characters
require different modes of treat-
ment. Where there are branches
of sufficient force, and properly
situated to form the first series of
main branches, they must be treat-
ed in the same manner as though
the tree were two years old. The
strongest and best situated are selected and pruned to with-
in four to six inches of their base, according to their vigor
and position; the lowest should not be more than six inches
from the stock. The small, feeble, superfluous ones are en-

g. 108.
Yearling pear-tree with
branches, the pruning indi-
cated by the cross-lines.

228

PKILNJLNG.

tirely removed ; the leading shoot, which, in such cases, is
short, and provided with plump buds, does not require a
heavy shortening ; in most cases,
one - half will be quite sufficient.
Figure 110 represents a tree of this
kind ; the cross-lines indicate the cuts.
Where the lateral branches are short
and spur-like, they will require very
careful treatment ; the strongest and
best placed are reserved. If the
lower ones have good terminal buds,
they are left entire ; those above them
are shortened, the lower to three,
the next above to two, and the up-
permost, next the leading shoot, to
one bud. This will give their pro-
ductions a proper relative degree of
vigor. The leader is cut back fur-
ther than in the well-branched sub-
ject, because it is presumed the buds
are less excitable — as a general
thing, within four to six buds of the
highest lateral, or one-half of its
length.

There is another class of trees neces-
sary to be noticed here, because they
are very common — two-year-old nur-
sery trees that have not been properly
treated. Figure 111 represents a tree
Fi£. 109. of t^jg km<34 A few inches only of

A two-year-old pear-tree, . , ~, ,

not cut back far enough the top were taken on at the com-
the first season; the second mencement of the second year's

pruning, to produce bran- , , ^ ,, , ., , ,*. .

ches below, is indicated by growth, and after that it was left to
the cross-line. itself. Branches, therefore, were pro-

duced only at the top, leaving a vacant space of two
feet — the very part that should have produced the first

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 229

set of main branches. The best disposition to make of
such trees would be to conduct them in the form of
dwarf standards, which they really are at present ; but it
happens that, in some cases, it is desired to convert them
into pyramids, and therefore it is essential that the proper
means be pointed out. Two-year-old trees, like yearlings,
differ materially in the character of the buds on the lower
part of the stem.- On some, these are quite prominent, so
much so as to appear to have made some advance towards
development, while in others they are quite flat and dor-
mant. It is obvious that trees in the first condition will
not require that severe retrenchment on the head, to pro-
duce branches below, as the last. In this case it will
generally be sufficient, and especially if the space be-
tween the stock and first branches does not exceed two
feet, to cut back the leader to three buds, and the lateral
branches below it to one bud ; but when the buds are
small and backward, or when the branchless space is over
two feet in length, the two-year-old wood must be cut
back to within eighteen inches to two feet of the base.
The formation of lateral branches is encouraged by cut-
ting notches in the stem, above a bud, at the point where
the branch is desired. We find that in the case of im-
ported trees, or those carried a great distance, and more
or less injured, nothing short of this severe cutting can
insure branches low enough to form a pyramidal tree.
It seems a great pity to cut back a tree in this manner,
and lose a year or two of its growth and bearing, but it
is absolutely necessary when the pyramidal form is want-
ed. There is still another class of trees that we sometimes
see sent out from the nurseries. These are two or three
years old ; have been cut back, and are pretty well fur-
nished, in all their length, with lateral branches, but, from
the want of proper care, those on the upper parts have
acquired greater vigor than those below, presenting the
tree in a situation just the reverse, in this respect, of what

230 PRUNING.

it ought to be. In pruning this specimen at the time of
planting, the lower branches must either be shortened
very slightly, in order to get a strong bud for a leader,
or they must be left entire, while those above will be cut
close ; where we want the longest and strongest branches,
there we leave the most wood.

The most important pruning performed upon a tree is
the first one, for it is this which makes all future manage-
ment easy and successful, or difficult and unsatisfactory.
This is the reason why it has appeared necessary to treat
of it so minutely. Having encountered all the difficulties
that others are likely to encounter, and having described
them and pointed out the means by which they are to be
overcome, it is believed that the matter has been made so
plain, that any man of ordinary intelligence, and possess-
ing the slightest knowledge of tree culture, can take his
knife and prepare his trees in such a manner as to give
him a most reasonable hope of attaining his ends. We
now proceed to the

Summer management of trees thus cut back. — We will
first consider the case of the yearling without branches.
If it has been cut low enough, as directed, nearly all the
buds below the cut will push. As a space of six to twelve
inches should be kept clear between the ground and the
first or lowest tier of branches, such shoots as may appear
on that part will be rubbed off at once. Of the re-
maining ones, a certain number, three to six, according to
the length of the stem, will be reserved. These must be
the strongest, and properly situated on the stem, within
eight to ten inches of space between each branch, and
that immediately above it, and regularly placed on all
sides of the stem. Some recommend leaving on all the
shoots that are produced the first season ; but in certain
cases this would be bad practice, for if the buds be very
close, the shoots would be so numerous that the strength
of all would be impaired, and much pruning would

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR.

231

be required the next season. The better way is to select
such as are wanted, and rub off the others ; the sap which
they would have appropriated will be turned to the ac-
count of the permanent branch-
es, and increase their vigor. The
leading shoot must be directed
in a straight line ; in some cases
a support may be necessary. If
the branches immediately below
it are so vigorous as to inter-
fere with its growth, they must
be checked by pinching. In
some cases it may be necessary
to do this when they are an
inch or two in length. It some-
times occurs that the bud cut
to is injured by the weather,
close cutting, or some other
cause, and pushes so feebly that
the laterals below it, having
more vigor, take the lead. This
must bo prevented in time. A
proper relative degree of vigor
must be maintained among all
the branches by checking, when
necessary, the most vigorous.
The first summer's treatment
of the branched yearling (fig.
112) will consist in maintain-
ing a uniform growth among
the lateral branches, and in the

case of the leading shoot, as al- ingmade oncyear,s growthafter
ready described. Some lateral the first pruning.
shoots will be produced on the branches, and these must
all be pinched at an inch or two, as it is yet too soon to
allow of the formation of secondary branches. The sum-

Fig, no.

A two-year-old pear-tree, hav-

232

PRUNING.

mer treatment of the two-year-old tree, fig. 1 10, will be
conducted on the same principles. The encouragement
of the leading shoot will require special attention to se-
cure it in an upright posi-
tion, as, in many cases,
where two-year-old wood is
cut back, the leading shoots
assume a horizontal or
curved direction.

The Second Pruning. —
We have now a tree com-
posed of two sections; the
first is the two -year -old
part, furnished with lateral
branches; and the second,
the leading shoot produced
last season (fig. 113). In
pruning it, our object will
be to establish a new sec-
tion of branches on the
leader, to continue the pro-
longment of the lower
branches, and to induce the
formation of fruit - spurs
towards their base. To ac-
complish these ends, we
shorten the leader or stem,
on the same principle, in re-
lation to its character, as
already directed for the
in. yearling trees, from one-

Pear-tree three years old, twice half to tWO-thirds its length,
pruned ; the third pruning is indicated and Sometimes more. Every

bud between the one we

cut to and the base of the shoot, should push ; and the
bud to produce the leader should be large, perfectly

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 233

formed, and opposite the cut of the previous year. The
lateral branches on the first section are shortened ac-
cording to their vigor, always remembering that the
lowest must be the longest, to carry out the pyramidal
form. They should also be cut back sufficiently to
insure the growth of all the buds on them. This point
requires considerable care, for if not cut back enough,
the interior of the trees becomes naked, instead of being
supplied with shoots for bearing spurs; and if cut
back too far, the shoots will be too vigorous and diffi-
cult to control. The appearance of the buds, and habits
of the variety, will be a sufficient guide, if properly
studied. The lowest branch on the left-hand side of fig.
113, having failed to attain its proportionate growth, will
be left entire, or nearly so.

Treatment of the growing shoots. — When the buds have
all started, and made a growth of an inch or two, their
force and forwardness will indicate the uses to be made
of them. Each of the main branches of the first section
may be considered as a stem ; its leader will require the
same treatment to favor its extension. At this time a
secondary branch may be required to fill up the space,
which widens as the branches extend. If so, a shoot is
selected for this purpose, and all the others on the same
branch are checked at two inches, and converted into fruit
branches. All the laterals are treated in this way. The
second section, now in process of formation, must be
managed as directed for the first section. During the
first season, the requisite number of shoots is preserved,
and the superfluous ones removed early. The leader is
maintained erect ; and the laterals immediately below it,
being always inclined to vigorous growth, must be checked
to keep them in a proper condition, relative to the leader
and the branches below them. The leading shoot must
always maintain its preeminence. It often happens that
the lateral shoots of the main branches that have been

234

PRUNING.

pinched will start and grow again. In such cases another
pinching must be performed within an inch of the previ-
ous one. As a gen-
eral thing, this will
be sufficient ; "but if
not, a third must be
given in the same
way ; for if they be
allowed to extend
into wood branches,
they will require
knife-pruning, and
create confusion
among all parts of
the tree. A very
general error in con-
ducting trees of
this kind, and in-
deed all others, is to
allow the branches
to be too close to
each other, so that
when they come to
bear, the wood, foli-
age, and fruit, on the
interior, are so ex-
cluded from the air
and light that they
all suffer. The fruit
is imperfect, and the
spurs become feeble,
and gradually per-
ish. The tree has
now two branched
sections, each from
twelve inches to two feet, as the case may be, and with

Fig. 112.

Pear-tree four years old, three times pruned ;
cross-lines indicate the fourth pruning; will now
be in a bearing state.

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 235

four to six branches on each ; the leading shoot is from
one to three feet in length.

The average hight of three-year-old trees, on the
quince, in our grounds, transplanted at one year old, and
twice pruned, is five to six feet. A few very vigorous-
growing varieties, that throw up a leader every season
three to four feet in length, are seven to eight feet ; but
these are comparatively few in number.

Third Pruning. — This is done on precisely the same
principles laid down for the second. The leader of the
stems is cut back in proportion to its vigor; the lateral
branches are also shortened in the same manner. It
must always be kept in mind that the lowest branches
must be longest ; and when it happens that they do not
take their due proportion of vigor, as compared with
those above them, and if pinching has not been duly at-
tended to the past summer, to maintain regularity, the
weaker must now be favored with a long pruning.

It has been remarked that the habits of growth and
bearing of the pear and apple are similar, but it should
be noted that, in treating them as pyramids, the apple-
tree is more liable to lose its vigor at the top, and there-
fore it is necessary to keep an eye to this point in their
management. From what has been said with reference
to an equal distribution of the sap, the remedy for this
difficulty will be obvious, viz., to reduce the vigor of the
lower parts by pinching, shortening, and heavy crops,
and to favor the upper part by long pruning and thin-
ning, or wholly removing the fruits.

Management of the Fruit Branches. — About the sixth
to the eighth year, from the first pruning of the tree, it
will have attained nearly as great dimensions as, in many
cases, will be desirable, and be well furnished with fruit
branches.

After this period, the object of the pruning will be to
prevent the extension of the tree, and maintain the fruit-

236

PRUNING.

bearing parts in a healthy and productive state. Without
proper care they will be liable to suffer from bearing too
much, or from the growth of young wood on the ex-
tremities of young
branches.

To diminish the
growth, and favor
the fruit branches,
the young shoots
must be pruned
shorter than before,
in order to turn the
sap more to the ben-
efit of the fruits, and
when the fruit-spurs
become too numer-
ous, so as to be too
near one another,
and produce more
fruit than the tree
can sustain with
safety, a portion of
them must be pruned
off. The lower-parts
always experience
this difficulty first,
the sap circulating
more slowly there
than in the summit.
Fruit -spurs of the
pear and apple, if

Fi"1. 113.— PYK AMID AL TRAINING COMPLETE. r l |

well managed, con-
tinue in a vigorous bearing state for a great many years.
To renew and prolong their vigor, the older parts must,
from time to time, be cut away, and new productions
created at their base to take their place.

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 237

Pruning and Management of the Apple as a Dwarf
on the Paradise stock.

Nothing is more simple than the treatment of these little
bushes.

They should have short stems, six to eight inches from
the ground, and the head should not be allowed to exceed
three to three and a halt' feet in hight, because the roots
are very small, and do not take such a firm hold of the
ground as to admit of a head that would offer much ob-
stacle to the wind. The branches should be evenly distrib-
uted around the head, open in the center, in the form of
a vase, and be furnished in all their parts with bearing
spurs.

These are the points to aim at in commencing the for-
mation of these trees. The proceedings are as follows :

First Pruning. — We will suppose that the subject is a
yearling bud or graft, a single shoot eighteen to twenty
inches in hight. In this case, the stem is cut back to the
point where it is intended to form the head, six to ten
inches, as the case may be, from the stock. Below this,
most of the buds will start and form shoots, from which
we select three or four of the strongest and best situated,
equally distant, if possible, around the stem, and rub or
pinch off all the others. The growth of the branches thus
selected for a head, is encouraged during the first season,
by keeping down all other productions that may appear.

Second Pruning. — The tree has now three or four
branches destined to be the basis of the framework of the
head. These branches are cut back full one half their length,

O 7

according as the buds in the variety are easily excited or
not, the object being to induce all the buds below the cut
to push. After growth has commenced, and an inch or
two of new wood been made, the shoot from the bud cut
to, will be chosen as a leader to continue the extension of
the branch ; and if secondary branches are wanted, they
will be chosen from those best situated, to fill up the ex-

238

PRUNING.

isting vacancies. All the other shoots are pinched when
two or three inches long, to convert them into fruit spurs,
and to prevent their interfering with the growth of the
wood branches. If one pinching is not sufficient, another
must be given in the same way as recommended for pyram-
idal trees. Indeed, the whole process, as far as it goes,
is the same ; but the same efforts are not necessary to
maintain an equal distribution of the sap, for the tree is
so low, and the form so natural, that no branch is more
favorably situated than another; and hence they are
easily kept in a uniform state of vigor. The branches of
irregular-growing sorts will require to be secured by
stakes in their proper places for a year or two at first,
until they have assumed a permanent position.

The third and all subsequent primings will be con-
ducted on the same principles as
the first and second, already de-
scribed, until the tree has attained
its full size. Fig. 114 represents
a dwarf apple-tree, four years old,
three times pruned ; the two last
prunings are indicated by the let
ters a and b.

Management of the Bearing
Tree. — In most cases the apple on
the Paradise is disposed to ex-
cessive fruitfulness, and unless the
fruit branches be occasionally Fig 114.

thinned and shortened, in order Dwarf appie-trce, four years
to reduce the number of bearing o]d> stem ten inches nishi head

lit, , T composed of four main branches

buds, and tO produce new WOOd, and several secondary branches:

the tree becomes enfeebled. Bad pruned three times, as at «, 6,
management of this kind has pro- '

mulgated the belief that the apple on the Paradise is ex-
ceedingly short-lived ; but the fact that plantations exist
in the most perfect vigor at the end of twelve to fifteen

THE APPLE AND THE PEAR. 239

years after planting, shows that by proper treatment
their existence is not so fleeting. The spurs must be
managed in a manner similar to that described in treat-
ing of pyramids, to renew them, and the slender fruit
branches must be shortened. This, in addition to the
manuring to be hereafter described, constitutes the sub-
stance of their management.

The Pruning and Management of the Apple and Pear
as Espaliers. — In the cool, moist climate of England, this
is a popular and advantageous method of training apples
and pears. The specimens of this kind in public and pri-
vate gardens there, are admirable in their way, and illus-
trate the skill and handiwork of the English gardener
very favorably. The best espalier for the apple and pear
is that of ihQ horizontal, that is, an upright central stem, with

Fig. 115.— PEAR-TREE TRAINED HORIZONTALLY*,

horizontal arms or branches at equal distances on both
sides (fig. 115). The production of this tree depends in
the main on the same principles as the pyramid, and does
not require illustration. The young tree is cut back to
within six inches of the ground. From the shoots pro-
duced below that point, three are selected, the upper one
to form the upright leader or stem, and two lateral or
side ones to form the two first arms. The first season
these shoots are allowed to grow upright and are kept in
equal vigor. At the commencement of the second season

240 PRUNING.

they are all cut back far enough, say one third to one
half their length, or even more in some cases, to insure
the growth of all the buds.

The upper shoot on each is selected for a leader, and the
others are pinched at two inches or less. After the pru-
ning, the arms are brought down half way to a horizontal
position, and towards the latter end of the season, wholly.
A uniformity of growth among all the parts is main-
tained according to the means and principles already laid
down, and year after year the tree is thus treated until
the requisite hight and number of horizontal arms or
branches be obtained. In the case of very vigorous
growing sorts the leader may be stopped in June, and
thus a second pair of arms be produced in one year. The
upright leader and the branches are treated in a similar
manner — a difference in vigor always requiring a corre-
sponding difference in treatment. For espaliers, the apple
should be on the Paradise or Doucin, and the pear on the
quince^ because these stocks all diminish the vigor of
wood growth, which is often the chief difficulty in
managing trained trees.

The aspect for these trees should never be due south. A
railing to train such trees on, is made of upright posts
sunk in the ground, and connected with cross-bars, at
eight to twelve inches apart, upon which the arms of the
espalier are fastened with willow or bass matting. Mr.
Rivers, in his " Miniature Fruit Garden," exhibits a sys-
tem of growing pears in espalier, in the form of pyramids,
as adopted by himself. I saw these trees when in Eng-
land, in 1849, and although it appeared a very ingenious
and economical arrangement, admitting a great number of
varieties in a small space, and besides very well adapted
to an English climate, yet it did not appear to offer any
advantages that would warrant its recommendation in
this country, unless under rare circumstances in the most
northern sections. Whoever will study attentively the

THE PEAR. 241

means described for conducting a pyramid, can succeed
fully in training the espaliers or wall pyramid.

THE PEAR IN WINE-GLASS FORM.

Captain Win. K. Austin, of Dorchester, Mass., has very
successfully adopted a method of training his dwarf pear-
trees, which he calls the " wine-glass pattern." Hovey's
Magazine of Horticulture, February, 1865, contained a
full account of this method of training by Captain A.
himself, and I extract from that the following condensed
statement :

"I take good, thrifty dwarf trees, say two years from
the bud ; I set them out in April, eight feet apart, in
rows, and the rows twelve or fifteen feet apart. I cut
off the top, or head it back, cutting out the center leader,
if any, and prepare the tree for a low start. The first
season the growth is usually small, but the second spring
(a year from planting) they are prepared to start vigor-
ously, and must be headed back or cut in, arid the tree
formed this second summer into the form you desire it to
take. A certain number of leaders, ten or twelve, may
be allowed to grow, the lower ones about eighteen inches
from the ground, with a clean stem below that.

"Nothing but these leaders are allowed to grow — no
central leader, but all equally distributed. All side shoots
and spray are kept down by nipping or cutting off with
very light shears, leaving always three or four leaves at
the base of the twig.

"Those leaders, having all the sap, grow fast, and must
be topped, when too long, about the 10th of July, or
sooner, if necessary, to check and concentrate the ener-
gies of the tree, and stock it up. This may have to be
repeated more than once, but if topped too early, the
tendency is to throw out more :side shoots, and increase
the labor. After the 10th or middle of July, the growth
11

242 PRUNING.

becomes sluggish during the hot weather, and if in the

116. — FEAK-TItEE THAINED IN WINE-GLASS FORM.

fall they start to growing again, the same process must
be repeated, and thus all the pruning is done during the
growing season.

CORDON TRAINING. 243

" This being done each year, the tree is constantly in
shape ; no saw is required to remove large limbs and
waste its energies, and no sap lost in superfluous growth.
The wood being exposed to the sun and air, ripens well,
and predisposes to the production of fruit spurs and
buds, and thus early bearing is secured."

I saw these trees of Captain Austin's not long ago, and
was delighted, not only with the symmetry, regularity,
and naturalness of their form, but with their vigor,
health, and productiveness.

It is really a model pear garden. The system is exactly
that pursued by the French in the management of their
" cordons," and Captain Austin's "leaders" are " cordons."
His " wine-glass " trees are like the French " vase," or
" goblet," but less artificial. Captain Austin does not tie
or restrain the branches in any way, but leaves them free
to spread after their natural habit, and that is one feature
of the system that, in my opinion, adds much to its value.

CORDON TRAINING.

M. Dubreuil says that, " with all the progress we have
made in arboriculture, in the employment of means for
the speedy attainment of certain ends, it still requires six-
teen to eighteen years to perfect the form of an espalier
pear-tree in any of the large designs, such as palmette,
fan, etc., which cover from thirty to sixty square feet of
wall (eighteen to twenty metres).

"Add to this the labor, care, and skill required to obtain
these forms in perfection, and the means necessary to
maintain an equal growth and vigor between the differ-
ent parts of the tree, objects which are so complicated
that a large number of gardeners fail in their execution.

" Struck by these difficulties, we have sought to remedy
them by suggesting a new form which, much less difficult
to establish than any of the others, permits the surface of

244

PRUNING.

a wall to be covered much sooner, and brings the trees
into full bearing at a much earlier period, without abridg-
ing their duration. We have given to this new method,
invented by us, for the pear, in 1852, the name of ' Cordon
Oblique Simple.' Its application is made as follows :

" Take young trees, one year from the graft or bud,
healthy and vigorous, having single stems ; plant about
eighteen inches apart, and incline one from the other,
at an angle of about 60°.

"Each one is cut back one-third its length, above a
bud, in front, as at A, fig. 117. During the summer fol-
lowing, the development of
the terminal shoot is favored
as much as possible, and all
the others are transformed
into fruit branches or spurs by
the aid of these operations,
recommended for the same
purpose, in training the pear
as a pyramid. In the spring
following, each of these young
trees presents the aspect of
fig. 118.

" The second pruning con-
sists in applying to each of
the lateral branches the care
necessary to transform them
into fruit-spurs, and* to cut
back one-third the new terminal shoot. The summer
treatment will be like that of the preceding.

" At the third pruning, the young stem should ordina-
rily attain two-thirds its entire length, when it should
be brought down to an angle of 45° with the surface of the
ground ; and the terminal shoot and laterals are subjected
to the same operations as in previous seasons. If these
trees had been brought down at first to an angle of 45°, it

Fig. 117. — OBLIQUE CORDON
PEAK — FIRST TEAR.

CORDON TRAINING.

245

'would have promoted the growth of strong superfluous
shoots at the base, to the detriment of the terminal shoot.

" To complete these trees, it remains only to continue
to prolong the stem, by means of the operations described,
until it reaches the top of the wall.
Having reached that, the stems are
cut, each year, about fifteen inches
below the coping of the wall, in order
to make place for the annual growth
of a vigorous shoot, which will cause
the sap to circulate freely through
the whole extent of the stem."

" As to the side of the horizon to-
wards which the tree should be in-
clined, this is a matter of no import-
ance where the walls run east and
west ; but for .those north and south,
the stems should be inclined to the
south; the fruit branches on the
lower sides will thus be better ex-
posed to the light. It is recommend-
ed, however, that where the walls are
situated on sloping ground, the trees
should be inclined towards the summit
of the slope, otherwise they would
attain the top of the wall too soon.

" The trees being planted about eighteen inches apart,
it results that the espalier, when complete^ is composed of
branches, lying parallel, with a space of about a foot be-
tween them, as in fig. 119.

" The espaliers, trained in this form, can be completed
in five years, whereas, by other methods, it would require
ten or twelve.

" They may begin to fruit the fourth year, and be in full
bearing the sixth, while twenty years would be required
by the other methods.

Fig. 118.— OBLIQUE COR-
DON PEAR— SECOND
TEAR.

246

PRUNING.

"Another advantage of importance is, that on the same
extent of wall required for an espalier of the large kind,
you can have a great many cordons, each of which may
IDC a different variety, thus greatly increasing the interest
of the plantation.

" Besides, if a large espalier tree dies, it makes a great
blank on a wall, and requires a quarter of a century to

Fig. 119. — OBLIQUE CORDON PEAK-TREES.

replace it ; but if a cordon dies, the blank is a small one,
and very soon filled up with a new tree.

" The following objections have been urged against this
form :

"It lias been feared that keeping the tree in such a
small space will induce such vigorous growth as to pre-
vent fruitfulness ; but this vigor being in proportion to
the extent of surface of the soil to which the roots have
access, and these being only eighteen inches apart, this
fear must be groundless.

" It has also been suggested that trees so near one an-
other could not live; but as the stem and branches of the
trees are to correspond with the extent of soil accessible
to the roots, there can be no force in this objection.

TRELLISES.

247

" It is farther objected that the cordon espalier is more
expensive than one in the old method. This is true, as
regards first expense ; but against this, the operations of
pruning are much more rapidly executed. We can ob-
tain a full crop of fruit from the cordon in six years,
whereas it would take sixteen or twenty by the old
method. The crop of ten seasons would certainly pay
many times the extra expense of the first planting.

" Finally, it is said that to give sufficient space to the
stem of these trees, the walls must be of a certain hight.
This is true ; but it will suffice if the minimum hight be
nine feet. We conclude, then, that for walls at least
nine feet high, the simple oblique cordon is to be pre-
ferred ; for walls of less elevation, the old palmette, or
fan."

TRELLISES.

The most simple trellis on which to train pear trees in
this method is that illustrated by fig. 120. For a wall of

Fig. 120.— TRELLIS FOR OBLIQUE CORDON.

five feet elevation, three transverse pieces, solidly fixed
against the wall, then a series of laths nailed to the trans-

248

PRUNING.

verse pieces, a foot apart, and inclined at an angle of 45°.
Each of these laths will be a conductor for the stem of
the young tree. Galvanized wire may be used instead
of lath.

SECTION 2. — PRUNING AND TRAINING THE QUINCE.

As ordinarily grown, the quince is the most neglected,
and, consequently, the most unsightly, deformed tree to be
found in the orchard or garden, and yet, when well treat-
ed, it is really, both when in blossom and in fruit, one of
the most beautiful of all our fruit trees. Its fruit is more
esteemed, and more generally used in this than in any
other country. It is naturally a crooked or spreading
bush, and without some attention to pruning and training
when young, it assumes an irregular form, branching near
the ground, and quite destitute of bearing wood on all its

lower and interior
parts. It is in this
neglected form we
most generally find it.
To make a regular
and handsome little
tree, we have only,
in the first place, to
rear a straight and
stout trunk about two
or three feet high.

If the plants be
weak or crooked when
planted, they should
be cut low down to
Fig. 121. obtain a stout and

B, frait branch of the quince; C7, the shoot f • t^ stem T,,
produced from the fruit-bed ; A, point at '
which it should be cut back after bearing. young shoot should be

kept tied up to a stake to prevent it from straggling.

THE CHERRY. 249

The second year, if the growth has been vigorous, and
low trees are desired, the head may be commenced. But
if a stem three or four feet high be desired, it should be
at least one incli in diameter, and another year's growth
may be necessary.

The head is formed in the same manner as described for
standard and dwarf apples and pears. It should be round,
symmetrical and open, and well furnished on all parts
with bearing wood.

The bearing branches or spurs of the quince are small
twiggy shoots (B, fig. 121), produced on wood at least
two years old. These bear two, three, or more fruit buds.
These produce shoots two or three inches long ((7, fig.
121), on the point of which the fruit is borne singly.
These spurs have always wood buds as well as fruit buds,
and therefore they should be shortened back as to A, fig.
121 , the spring after they have borne, in order to produce
new spurs at the same point.

The French train it in beautiful pyramids, on pre-
cisely the same principle as the penr and apple ; but the
leading shoot must be kept fastened to an upright sup-
port— a small rod attached to the base — on account of its
reclining habit.

THE MEDLAR

is but little cultivated. Its treatment may be exactly
similar to that described for the quince, its habits of
growth and bearing being similar.

SECTION 3. — PRUNING THE CHERRY.

The cherry is trained in any desirable form with as
much facility as any of our hardy fruit trees. The
heart and bigarreau classes are very rapid growers, often
attaining the hight of six feet the first season from the
bud or graft, and in two years forming fine standard trees
11*

250 PRUNING.

six to seven feet high, with a few top shoots. They have
also large, drooping leaves, aiid, with few exceptions, stiff,
erect, or slightly curved branches.

The duke class does not grow so rapidly. The branches
are stiff and erect, the leaves smaller as a general thing
than the preceding classes, more erect, thicker and of a
deeper, darker green color.

The morettos are of a bushy habit, with smaller leaves
than any of the preceding classes, and the branches are
more slender and closer together. The bark of all is very
tough, being composed of several layers of powerful fibres
and tissue. The mode of bearing has already been de-
scribed under the head of fruit branches, in the beginning
of the work. The fruit is produced on wood three years
old, thus : The shoot of last year's growth, which is now
furnished with leaf buds in all its length, will produce
at the point, if not shortened, one or more shoots, and all
the buds remaining are, during the season, transformed
into clusters of fruit buds, and produce fruit the year fol-
lowing. In the center of these clusters of fruit buds
there is always a wood bud, and this grows a little and
produces new clusters of fruit buds to replace those that
have borne. Some of the morellos produce fruit on two-
year-old wood, like the peach, the leaf buds being trans-
formed into fruit buds during the second growth of the
first season of their formation. The fruit bud is very
easily distinguished from the leaf bud by its roundness
and plumpness.

Pruning the Cherry as a Standard. — In Western New
York the cherry succeeds so well, and being in general ex-
empt from the bursting of the bark, that trees can be grown
safely with trunks five or six feet high ; but in the West,
where this malady prevails, the less there be of a naked
trunk the better ; for it is the trunk and large branches
that are generally so affected. As a standard, the cherry
requires very little pruning.

THE CHERRY. 251

To Form a Round Open Head. — We will take for ex-
ample a young tree two years old, having three or four
top branches. These at the time of planting should be
cut back to within four or five buds of their base, and
when growth has commenced, the requisite number of
shoots, say four or five, to form the framework of the head,
are selected, evenly distributed on all sides, and all the
others pinched or rubbed oif.

The following season these shoots may again be short-
ened to produce secondary branches to fill up spaces, and
those arising from the centre should be pinched out, for the
head must be kept open and accessible to the sun and
light. In about three years of such treatment the head
of the tree assumes a permanent form, and thereafter may
be left to itself, except to remove occasionally branches
that may cross or interfere with one another.

Pyramidal-headed Standards. — Certain varieties, for
instance, SparhawJJs Honey, Downer, China Bigar-
reau, Black Tartarian, Blade Heart, and some others,
make fine pyramidal-shaped heads without pruning, more
than to give the leader its due superiority at the begin-
ning, and to remove afterwards, crossing and superfluous
branches.

Such varieties as the Yellow Spanish, Black Eagle,
Knight's Early Black, Elton, and all the spreading sorts,
should have round, open heads, built upon three or four
main branches, as described.

Pruning the Cherry as a Pyramid. — The same process
recommended for the pyramidal training of the pear and
npple may be applied with complete success to the cherry.
We have now in our specimen grounds a collection of all
the classes trained according to the method described,
and their condition is in every respect satisfactory; they
have all given fruit the third year.

In most cases the trees were taken from the nursery
rows at the end of their first season's growth from the

252 PRUNING.

bud. Some had no side branches, and others had. It is
very common for cherries, and especially the Dukes and
Morellos, to form a number of lateral brandies the first
season. Growth becomes slightly suspended, or at least
goes on very slowly, in July ; during this time the buds on
the lower part acquire a sort of maturity, and when a ne\v
growth commences they push and form shoots. Cherry
trees of this kind are in a good condition for pyramids.
We select from these the strongest and best situated
to form the lower tier of permanent branches ; the lower
ones are shortened to four or five buds, and the upper ones
to two or three. The leader or stem is cut back to within
six, eight, or ten buds of the branches. Those having no
branches are cut back to within six or eight buds of the
stock. And this is the first pruning.

Treatment during the First Summer after Pruning. —
When the young shoots have grown a couple of inches in
length, such as are intended for permanent branches are
chosen, and the others are pinched in the same manner as
recommended for pears and apples. Such as acquire more
vigor than is consistent with their position, must be
checked. It frequently happens that unless the leader has
been cut back close, only three or four shoots will be pro-
duced at the extremity, leaving a vacant space below.
This can be remedied in most cases by pinching the shoots
around the leader when they have grown about an inch.
In some cases it may be necessary even to check the
leader to force the lower buds into growth. This is n
point of considerable importance in conducting n, pyramid,
and should never be lost sight of.

The Cherry as an Espalier. — Except it be the training
of the morello, or some other late varieties, on a north
wall, to prolong their season of maturity, the cherry is sel-
dom grown as an espalier tree in this country, nor is it to
be recommended, except in some rare instances. The sim-
plest and probably the best form is that suggested for

THE CHERRY. 253

pears and apples, an upright stem with horizontal branches.
To produce this the same means are employed as have
been previously described. If the tree has no side
branches proper for the first arms, it must be cut back to
within six inches of the ground, and from the shoots pro-
duced below that, one is selected for -the leader, and one
on each side for the first horizontal branches ; the other
shoots are pinched off. At the next pruning the leader is
again shortened to produce another pair of side brandies
eight or ten inches from the first ; the leader is continued
in an upright direction, and the side branches are brought
half-way down in midsummer, and at the following spring
pruning they are placed in the horizontal position. The
leading shoot of rapid-growing sorts may be stopped about
the end of June, and this will produce side shoots from
which another pair of arms may be taken, and thus gain
a year in the formation of the tree, or covering the wall
or trellis.

For weak-growing sorts, the fan form or some modifica-
tion of it would, perhaps, be more suitable than the hori-
zontal, as it offers less restraint to the circulation of the
sap in the branches.

The Cherry as a Dwarf or Bush. — The slow-growing
sorts, such as the dukes and morellos, when worked on the
mahaleb stock, make very pretty and very easily managed
prolific bushes, and by occasional root-pruning they may
be confined to as small a space as a dwarf apple-tree. To
produce this form the young tree is cut back to within
five or six buds of its base ; and from the shoots produced
below that, four or five evenly distributed around the tree
are selected for the permanent branches or framework of
the tree. The others are rubbed off. At the next pru-
ning the branches thus produced are shortened to produce
secondary branches ; and thus it is treated from year to
year until the tree is formed and full-grown.

The branches must be kept far enough apart to admit

254 PRUNING.

the sun and air freely amongst them. When the tree is
five or six years old, if it grows too vigorously, requiring
more space than can be given it, the larger roots may be
shortened in July or August, or in the winter. This and
the pyramid, and the dwarf standard, with stems two feet
high, are the most eligible garden forms for the cherry.*

This dwarf or bush form is probably the most advan-
tageous one in which the cherry can be successfully grown
in all of the Western and North-western States. Where
the summers are hot and the air often very dry, the foli-
age protects the main stems ; and where snows are deep,
the tree is in this form often protected from cold and the
fruit buds saved.

The dwarf standard is treated precisely as the dwarf,
and differs from it only in having two feet instead of six
or eight inches of stem. In pruning and training the
cherry, it should always be borne in mind that when
laro;e branches are removed, it is liable to suffer from the
gum, and therefore the regulation of the shoots should
be carefully attended to in summer, that amputations of
woody parts may be avoided as far as possible. When it
is necessary, however, the cut surface heals more rapidly
and surely when made in the summer, during the growing
season.

SECTION 4. — PRUNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE PEACH.

The peach is universally regarded as the most delicious
fruit of our climate, and ranks in importance for orchard
culture, next to the apple and the pear. Nowhere in the
world is it produced in such quantities, and with so little

*Mr. Rivers states in his '"Miniature Fruit Garden" that he has a
plant of the late Duke Cherry ten years old that never was root-pruned, and
yet is a small prolific tree, five feet in night, and the branches the same in
diameter. We have in our specimen grounds trees of several dukes and
morellos, six years old, on mahaleb stocks, uot over four or five feet
high, and pictures of iruiU'ulness.

THE PEACH. 255

labor, as in America. An English or French gardener
will expend more labor on a single tree than the majority
of our orchardists do upon one hundred. Our favorable
climate obviates a multitude of difficulties that have to be
contended with in other countries, and renders unneces-
sary the minute and laborious systems of management
which they find it absolutely necessary to pursue.

But this very excellence of our climate has given rise to
a most negligent and defective system of cultivation, as is
everywhere illustrated in the condition of orchards. The
peach, of all other trees, is one that, from its mode of
growth and bearing, requires constant pruning to main-
tain it in a shapely, thrifty, and productive state. The
sap tends powerfully to the extremities of the shoots,
more so than in any other fruit tree. The buds that do
not push and form shoots the first season after their forma-
tion, are lost; they cannot, as in most other trees, be ex-
cited into growth ; and hence it is that the lower parts
become so rapidly denuded of young wood, and that trees
left to themselves six or seven years are in a measure
worn out and useless.

The fruit is borne only on wood of the preceding year
(see fruit branches), and every part destitute of such wood
must be worthless ; consequently one of the great objects
of pruning is to keep all parts of the tree furnished with
a regular and constant succession of annual bearing shoots.

The case of a single shoot will illustrate the influence
of pruning and its necessity. By referring to the fruit
branch, it will be seen that it is furnished with a certain
numbe1.' of wood buds and fruit buds. At the base there
are always one or two wood buds at least.

Now, if that shoot were not pruned, all the fruit buds
on it would probably produce fruit — one, two, or three
of the wood buds at the top would make new shoots;
these would necessarily be very weak in consequence of
the fruit below them. At the end of the season there

256 PRUNING.

would be a long, vacant space, entirely destitute of a
young shoot or a living bud. This is the way that
the interior and lower parts of trees soon become de-
garnished.

But when that shoot is shortened, we will say one half,
the sap is retained in its lower parts, one half of the fruit
buds are removed, and the consequence is that large and
fine fruits are obtained from those remaining ; vigorous
young shoots are produced from the lower buds to bear
next year, and take the place of those which have already
borne. In this way regular uniform crops of large and
fine fruit are obtained, and a constant succession of young
shoots is kept up.

To Form the Head of a Standard Peach Tree. — We
will suppose it the intention to form a standard tree, with
a trunk two feet in hight, and a round, open, and sym-
metrical head. We take a yearling tree and cut it back
to within two feet and a half of the ground in the spring.
Below this cut, a certain number of shoots will be pro-
duced, from which three will be selected to form the main
branches or framework of the head. All the others are
rubbed off when two or three inches long, or sooner. At
the end of the season we have a tree with three branches.

The second year these three branches are cut back full
one-half their length, and from each we take a shoot to
continue the branch, and one to form a secondary branch.
The other shoots produced below these are pinched or
checked, to prevent them from interfering with the growth
of the leading branches. In the fall of the year we have
a tree with six leading branches, and some bearing shoots
below on the older wood.

The third year each of these six branches is shortened
one-half, in order to obtain more secondary branches, and
some fruit branches on the lower parts. All young shoots
on the old wood, whether fruit branches or not, should be
cut back one-half, or as far as may be necessary, to cause

THE PEACH. 257

the wood buds at their base to push, and make shoots to
bear next year.

The formation of the head goes on as described, for two
or three years more, when it is complete ; for peach trees,
properly pruned, do not assume such wide-spreading forms
as they do naturally.

The main branches and secondary branches should be
at equal distances throughout, and far enough apart to
give the bearing wood on their sides the full benefit of the
sun and air.

An equality of vigor should also be preserved amongst
them by summer pinching. It is not uncommon to see a
very vigorous shoot start up in a peach-tree, and appro-
priate so much of the sap as to injure a whole branch ;
these should be checked the moment their character is ob-
served, unless they may be wanted to fill a vacancy. Every
part of the branch should be furnished with bearing
shoots, and these should, every spring, be shortened in
one half or more, to produce others at their base, whilst
those that have borne are cut out.

Some people imagine that when they have taken a pair
of hedge shears, or some such instrument, and shorn off
the ends of the shoots on the outside of the tree indis-
criminately, they are " shortening in," and so they are, as
they would a hedge ! Some of the shoots are cut away
entirely, fruit-buds and all, whilst others remain untouched,
and the tree becomes like a brush on the outside and
naked within. This is almost as bad as the let-alone sys-
tem. Every shoot should be cut separately. The most
expeditious instrument for doing this is a pair of light
hand pruning shears, such as the French secateur (see in-
struments). A person accustomed to its use can prune
every shoot on a full-grown tree in an almost incredibly
short space of time, as compared with that required with
the knife. Extensive orchardists, looking to the cost, may
be deterred from, such a labor; preferring to let their

258 PRUNING.

orchards die after bearing a few crops, and plant new
ones to take their place. In the case of garden trees, or
the family orchard, the case is different, and careful pru-
ning will pay.

Root Pruning. — In gardens where the soil is rich, and
trees very full of vigor, disposed to grow too much and
bear too little, root pruning should be practised once in
two or three years — the first lightly, removing only the
ends of the large feeding roots. The safest time to do it
is between the fall of the leaf and the opening of spring.
Vegetation in the peach seldom becomes sufficiently inac-
tive during the growing season, to enable the roots to be
pruned with safety.

The Peach in the form of a Vase. — Among all the
forms in which trees are conducted, this is, when well
done, one of the most graceful.

It consists of a short stem, two to five feet, according to
fancy, with a head composed of three or four main branches,
and two or three times that number of secondary branches,
all trained, by means of light stakes at first, and after-
wards wire or wooden hoops, in the form of a vase or
goblet. The branches are arranged in a circle, with bear-
ing shoots filling up the spaces. No shoots are permit-
ted either in the interior or in front, that is, projecting
from the exterior surface of the goblet.

The most beautiful trees of this form are to be seen in
the gardens of the Luxembourg, at Paris, and elsewhere
in France.

Mr. Louis Gaudry, who has a very pretty little planta-
tion in Paris, and who has published a small work on
pruning and training trees, gives the annexed cut as a rep-
resentation of one of his vase peach-trees of eight years'
growth (fig. 122). The following is the substance of his
mode of conducting them.

First Pruning. — The stem of the yearling tree is cut
back to the point at which it is desired to commence the

THE PEACH.

259

head, to three buds, forming a triangle, and as nearly as
possible of the same hight. Three shoots are obtained

Fig. 123.— PEACH-TUBE IN FOUM OF A VASE.

from these three buds to form the first or main branches
or framework of the vase. To favor the growth of these,
all the shoots produced below them are rubbed off.

In order to give them the proper inclination, three small

260 PRUNING.

stakes are inserted in the ground, to which the three
branches are fastened ; it is supposed that if these stakes
be sunk as far from the base of the tree as the roots ex-
tend, and in an upright position, there will be a sufficient
opening or space in the center. The branches should be
thus brought out about August, so that the formation of
new layers of wood subsequent to that time may fix them
in their places. The side shoots, which are produced on
the young branches, towards the latter part of the season^
designated by the French bourgeois anticipes, are pinched
to one or two leaves.

Second Pruning.— The spring following, the branches are
loosed from the stakes, and shortened to within six or eight
inches of their base, to a leaf bud on the outside or front
of the branch, and with a bud below it, either on the right
or left side. The front bud continues the main branch,
and the side bud forms a secondary branch. The three
branches are pruned in this way, taking care that the
secondary branch on each is on the same side, so that two
of them can not come in contact. To favor the growth of
these new shoots, all those situated below them that acquire
too much vigor, musk be pinched at three or four leaves.

A wooden hoop may now be placed in the center, to
which the branches are attached to keep them in their
places. In this way the tree progresses ; every year one
or more secondary branches are produced, the main
branches increase in length, and fruit shoots are produced
on all the intervals of the branches on their two sides.

All shoots that push either inside or in front of the vase
are pinched off, and pinching is practised at all times to
maintain equal growth between the different parts, and to
check any too great tendency of the sap to the ex-
tremities.

Third Pruning. — The fruit branches are pruned to
three or four buds, to induce the lower wood buds to push
and form new wood for the next season.

THE PEACH. 261

The main branches are cut back to ten or twelve inches
above the previous pruning, to a bud on the front to con-
tinue the branch ; the buds selected to produce another
series of secondary branches must all be on the side oppo-
site the previous ones. If the position of the buds renders
this impossible, then they may all be chosen on the same
side as the first.

The hoops this year will require to be larger in diame-
ter than the preceding, in order to give increased width
to the vase as it proceeds upwards. All the other opera-
tions are conducted in the same manner. The hoops in-
side are placed within six to eight inches of one another,
and the circular branches within twelve to fifteen inches.
As the tree advances in age, the growth may become too
vigorous at the top ; and in this case, the main branches,
always the most vigorous, must be pruned short, and even
pinched during summer, to turn the sap to the benefit of
the weaker parts.

These are the main points in the management of these
vases. It may be added, that the apple, pear, cherry, and
indeed all other trees may be grown in this form, and by
the same means, varying it only to suit different modes
of growth and bearing, and degrees of vigor.

The Peach as an Espalier. — Espalier training will never
be practiced in this country to any very great extent, and
therefore it may be considered, in comparison with open*-
ground systems, unimportant. Yet there are some dis-
tricts not so favorably situated as to be able to produce
peaches, apricots, and nectarines, in the open ground.
For these a proper system of espalier training is impor-
tant, because in this form trees are easily protected from
winter or spring frosts, and they ripen their fruits perfect-
ly, where open ground or standard trees would not. We
have a tree trained on the wall of one of our nursery
buildings which never fails to yield a good crop of superb
fruit, when trees in open ground, both in orchard and gar-

262

PRUNING.

den, fail. The fruit is of superior quality, and ripens
considerably earlier than that on trees in open ground.
On the 8th of August last, 1871, we picked from it Hale's
Early, nine inches in circumference.

The Peach as an Espalier trained on a wall or trellis. —
There are a multitude of forms for espalier trees where
training on walls or trellises is necessarily and extensively
practiced, as in England and France. The great requisites
in a wall tree are, first, to have all the wall covered ; and,
second, to have the different parts of the tree alike favor-
ably placed, with reference to its growth. Next to these
are simplicity and naturalness.

The most popular form in England is that called the fan

Fig. 123. — FAN-SHAPED ESPALIER.

(fig. 123). In it the branches are spread out so as to re-
semble a fan ; the lower ones are nearly or quite hori-
zontal ; the next more oblique ; and so they proceed until
the center ones are quite upright, and this appears to be
the defect of this form ; for the horizontal branches can
not maintain such a visror as those more erect above them.
The square espalier, invented by M. Felix Malo, of
France, and now extensively practiced by some of the
best peach-growers of the celebrated town of Montreuil,
seems to possess more advantages, all in all, than any
other. The Bon Jardinier, from which the following
description of the method of conducting these trees is

THE PEACH. 263

taken, says: "This generally approved form begins to
find imitators, and it is probable that one day it will be
adopted by all intelligent gardeners."

First Year. — We will begin with a peach-tree one year
from the bud, and cut it down to within six or eight
inches, or three or four buds of the stock. From the buds
produced below the cut, two of the strongest are chosen,
one on each side to form the two main branches — branches
merely ; all the other shoots are destroyed, and these two
are allowed to grow upright, and in the fall they will be
three to four feet high.

Second Year (fig. 124). — In the spring, when hard frosts
are no longer apprehended,
the branches are examined
to see if they be sound and
healthy, free from bruises,

insects, etc., and they are

. , i .£•£• Fig- 124. Fte. 125.

cut back to twelve or fif- SECOND TEAR THIRD TEAR<

teen inches of their base,

according to their strength ; a weak branch ought al-
ways to be cut back in such a case as this further than
a strong one.

The bud cut to, should, if possible, be on the inside,
and the next bud below it on the outside ; the first to
continue the main branch, and the other to form the first
exterior secondary branch. All shoots starting on the
front or rear of the main branch should be rubbed off, and
those on the sides laid in early to prevent their acquiring
too much vigor. The main branches are left until July,
when they are brought down to the form of a V, and at-
tached to the wTall or trellis in this position. The exterior
secondary branch is placed more obliquely, and the fruit
branches are kept in a uniform and moderate growth by
pinching and laying in. The most vigorous should
always be laid in first, to check them, and favor the others.

Third Year (fig. 125). — After loosening the tree from

264 PRUNING.

the trellis, the two main tranches are cut back to sixteen
or eighteen inches of the previous pruning, and the two
lower or secondary branches to twelve or sixteen inches.

The fruit branches are shortened to within two or three
buds of their base, and all are again fastened back in their
places. When the young shoots have reached the length
of three, four, or five inches, such as are badly placed on
the front or rear of the branches, or in any place injurious
to the symmetry of the tree, are removed. During the
summer the different brandies must be laid in from time
to time, the most vigorous first. This year two more
secondary branches must be obtained on each side, in the
same manner as in the previous year. Their growth is
also promoted by the same means.

The fruit branches on the sides of the main brandies
may give some fruit this year, and those on the secondary
branches may bear next year.

The fruit branches that have borne are to be cut away
each year and replaced by others, therefore we must com-
mence to provide for these, branches of replacement.
They are produced as follows :

First, it may be' observed that fruit branches have gen-
erally one or more wood buds at their base. Sometimes
these will push and form branches of replacement without
any assistance, more than cutting back. In such a case
there is no difficulty. When the fruit is ripe, or at the
next pruning, the fruit branch that has borne is cut away,
and the new one takes its place. But nature does not
always act thus. It is generally necessary to force the
development of these branches of replacement, without
which the branches in all their lower parts would become
entirely denuded.

Hence, then, when a branch of replacement fails to ap-
pear by the ordinary method of shortening, we have two
modes of forcing it : one is to make, after the fruit is set,
an incision through the bark two inches above one of the

THE PEACH. 265

wood buds, and pinch close all the shoots on the fruit
branch, leaving only rosettes of leaves necessary to the
perfection of the fruit; pinching must be repeated all the
time that the shoots on the fruit branch continue to grow.

Fourth Year (fig. 126). — After having examined if the
tree is equally vigorous in all its parts, and having de-
cided upon the means of restoring the balance if it has
been lost, the tree is detached from the wall or trellis, and
pruned, commencing with the fruit branches that have
borne. These, it must be remembered, are to be cut back
each year to the new branch of replacement produced at
its base. The young shoot then becomes the fruit branch,
and is pruned within four to fourteen inches, according to
its vigor and the situation of the fruit buds.

The two main branches are cut back to within about
twenty inches of
the previous prun-
ing ; the first shoot
on the inside is
chosen to continue

the branch, and the Fig. 126. Fig. 127.

next one below it, FOURTH YEAR- FIFTH TEAR-

on the lower and outer side, to produce the third ex-
terior secondary branch. The two secondary branches
already formed are cut back to about twelve to fifteen
inches of the previous pruning, in order to make all the
lateral buds on them push. The terminal bud produces a
leader to continue them ; all the others are fruit branches.

In attaching the tree again to the wall, the angle that
exists between the two main branches is gradually
widened, the branches a little more spread at every pruning.

Fifth Year (fig. 127). — The tree is now composed of
two main branches, both of which have three secondary
branches on their exterior lower sides, and fruit branches
on all their length on the interior and upper side ; and all
that is wanted to complete it is to transform three of the

266

PRUNING.

bearing shoots on the upper sides into three secondary
branches, corresponding and alternating with the three
lower ones. To do this we select the fruit branch on each,
nearest the fork or base of the main branches. The
growth of this is favored by training it in an upright posi-
tion, and by pinching any vigorous shoots near it. The
tree is managed thus, as in preceding years, in regard to
laying in the shoots according to their vigor, and pinch-
ing to maintain regularity, etc.

The Sixth Year (fig. 128). — The pruning is conducted
on the same principles precisely, and another interior
secondary branch is produced in the same way as last
year.

The Seventh Year (fig. 129). — Another is produced on
each, and then the tree, with its two main branches and
twelve secondary branches, all trained in the form of a
parallelogram, is complete (fig. 130).

Fig. 131 represents the tree complete, bearing shoots
and all.

The main branches should be permanently fixed at an

Fig. 128.

SIXTH YEAR.

Fig. 129.
SEVENTH TEAR.

angle of 45° ; the lowest
exterior secondary branch-
es at 15°. Some cultiva-
tors recommend that the
interior secondary branch-
es converge to the center
at an angle of 45°. This

gives them an oblique direction, and places them upon

a more equal footing with the other parts.

Fig. 130.— EIGHTH YEAR.

THE PEACH.

267

In training such trees an imaginary circular line is pro-
duced on the
wall or trellis,
and this is divid-
ed off into parts,
corresponding to
the degrees of a
circle, commenc-

ing at the center
above, and num-
bering both ways
to the base : this
enables the per-
sons who conduct
the tree to lay in
the branches on
both sides at an
equal angle with
precision, which
is quite requisite
to maintain uni-
formity of
growth and vig-
or. It has been
considered neces-
sary to treat this
subject some-
what minutely,
for the purpose
of giving to per-
sons wholly un-
acquainted with
training, .some
knowledge of the
principles on which it depends, and the mode of its
execution.

268 PRUNING.

The form described above is one of the simplest of all
espaliers, except the horizontal, described in treating of
the apple and the pear; but whoever can train a tree in
this manner well, can do it in all others, for the principles
of growth are the same always ; and he who understands
these, can mould his trees at pleasure, provided he can be-
stow the necessary labor. The peach may be grown in
any or all the espalier forms, and may thus be easily pro-
tected by means of straw-mats, or evergreen branches.

Laying in, and fastening the trees to walls and trel-
lises.— When trees are trained to a wall or fence, the
branches are fastened in the desired position by means of
shreds of cloth list, or strips of India-rubber half an inch
wide, and from two to three inches long, according to the
size of the branch to be laid in.- Very small nails are
necessary to train on boards, but larger ones on a brick and
stone wall. On a wire trellis, strings of bass matting are
used instead of nails and cloth; and in fastening to sim-
ple rails, small willows may be used. The principle to be
observed, in laying in and fastening the branches and
shoots of espalier trees, is that strong shoots must be laid
in sooner than weak ones, and also more inclined from the
vertical direction. A great deal may be done towards
maintaining uniformity of growth in the different parts
of a trained tree, by laying in the branches in a judicious
and discriminating manner.

SECTION 5. — PRUNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE PLUM.

The plum bears its fruit on spurs produced on wood
two years old and upwards, like the cherry (see Fruit
Branches). On young trees these spurs are several years
in the process of formation ; but when they commence to
bear they endure, if well managed, for many years. They
are generally furnished with wood buds on their lower
parts ; and when they begin to grow feeble, they ought

THE APRICOT. 269

to be renewed by cutting back. The plum is almost uni-
versally grown as a standard, and the head may be con-
ducted in the same manner as described for the cherry.
The branches should be mainly regulated by summer
pinching, to obviate the necessity of knife-pruning, that
frequently gives rise to the gum. Some varieties of very
rapid growth produce shoots three or four feet long in
one season ; and if not shortened back at the spring pru-
ning, the tree presents long naked branches in a short
time.

Standards and dwarf standards may be root-pruned to
advantage in small gardens, and where it is desirable to
get them into early bearing.

The plum may be trained in any of the espalier forms
already described, and in the same manner.

SECTION 6. — PRUNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE APRICOT.

The Apricot, like the peach, has fruit and wood buds
mixed on the shoots of one year's growth. It has also
little fruit branches or spurs like the plum, which are
capable of being renewed by shortening.

The mode of pruning must therefore have in view the
production of young wood, and maintaining the spurs in
a vigorous and fruitful state. When neglected, it becomes,
like the peach, denuded of young bearing wood in the in-
terior, and enfeebled by over-fruitfulness. The shoots
should therefore be shortened every season, according to
their length, as recommended for the peach, to reduce the
number of blossom buds, and favor the production of new
bearing wood.

It is very liable to the gum, and severe pruning with
the knife should be. obviated as far as possible by pinch-
ing. It may be conducted as a standard, pyramid,
dwarf, or espalier, on the same principle as other trees.
When trees become enfeebled by neglect or age, they can

270 PRUNING.

be renewed by heading down close to the stem. New
and vigorous shoots are immediately produced that form
a new tree. This heading down should be done very
early in the spring, and the wounds be carefully covered
with grafting wax.

It is one of the first of our fruit trees to blossom in the
spring, and therefore in some localities the flowers are
killed by the frost. Where this is apprehended it may be
well to plant on the north side of a wall, or something
that will rather retard the period of blooming, and sub-
ject it less to freezing and thawing. We have apricots
trained here on a south aspect, yet in seven years the
blossoms have not been killed, though in one or two in-
stances they have been slightly injured. The espalier
trees offer great facility for protection; and therefore,
where spring frosts prevail, the apricot should be so
trained. Mats or straw hurdles can be placed against
them, both in spring and winter if necessary, with the
same ease that a common frame is covered. We have
used e-ergreen boughs for this purpose with great success.

SECTION 7. — PRUNING THE NECTARINE.

The Nectarine is but a smooth-skinned peach. The trees
are so similar in their mode of growth, buds, etc., that
they can not be distinguished from one another, and, there-
fore, whatever has been said respecting the pruning and
treatment of one, applies with equal force to the other.
This fruit is so infested with the curculio, that it is almost
impossible to obtain a crop that will pay for culture in
any part of the country in the open ground. Unless some
more effective remedy be discovered than any yet known,
it will soon have to retire from the garden, and take up
"its residence with the foreign grape in glass-houses.

It produces excellent crops trained in espaliers on a
back wall, or a center trellis of a cold-grapery.

THE GRAPE. 271

SECTION 8. — HAKDY NATIVE GRAPES.

Culture, Pruning, and Training. — When we wrote the
first pages of THE FRUIT GARDEN, in 1851, the culture
of our native hardy grape was principally confined to
a few vines in the gardens of amateur horticulturists.
Vineyard culture was supposed to be adapted only to
high, hilly locations, and, beyond a few hundred acres
in the neighborhood of Cincinnati, O., was all unknown
and untried. The varieties at that time considered val-
uable for general cultivation were limited to a bare
half-dozen. But the past twenty years have wrought
wonderful changes, abounding in results of incalculable
value. As we have said, at the time we first wrote, the
list of valued varieties was but a bare half-dozen, and no
attempts had then been made toward improvement by the
production of new sorts from seed ; but now our lists of
varieties grown from seed have become numerous, greatly
improved in quality of fruit, with habits as to ripening,
growth, etc., adapted to all soils and locations. The cul-
ture of the vine has become, as it were, a feature belong-
ing to every household and garden, while vineyards by
the thousands of acres cover not only the hills but the
broad prairies and other level lands of our States. The
interest and extent of this branch of rural occupation have
induced the application of thought and skill. So that
while the past twenty years have wrought wonderful
changes, the prospective advance in improvement of varie-
ties and adaptation to soils and localities is an item be-
yond computation.

Varieties introduced since 1851. — In 1851 the varieties
of hardy grapes known and described, numbered about
twenty ; now their number is about two hundred, many
of them, however, of inferior quality, and others so nearly
resembling their parents as not to make them specially
valuable.

272 PRUNING.

Acres in Cultivation. — In the absence of any reliable
statistics no true account of the number of acres in culti-
vation can now be written, but estimating from the re-
ports of Grape Growers', Horticultural, and Agricultural
Societies, we may safely assume that we have something
over one million of acres, of which the territory west of
the Rocky Mountains may claim 100,000, and the States
east the remainder.

Garden Culture. — The management of our native grapes
is exceedingly simple. The vine appears to accommodate
itself to a great variety of modes of treatment and give an
abundance of fruit. But a well-pruned and trained vine,
in a well-prepared soil, will assuredly compensate for all
additional labor and care in its culture.

Immense crops are raised throughout the country in the
entire absence of any systematic mode of training or prun-
ing. A single vine in a neighbor's garden, carried to the
flat roof of an out-building, and allowed to ramble there at
pleasure, without any care but a very imperfect pruning
every spring, produces annually many bushels of fruit ;
but the quality is, of course, greatly inferior to that pro-
duced on well-pruned, trained, and dressed vines. A grape-
vine neatly trained on a trellis, with its luxuriant, ample
foliage and rich, pendulous clusters of fruit, is really one
of the most interesting objects in a fruit garden, and at
the same time one of the most profitable ; for the shade
and ornament alone that it produces, are a sufficient
recompense for its culture.

Soils. — In planting a grape-vine the first poin.t is to pre-
pare a border for the roots.

This must, in the first place, be perfectly dry. If the
soil or situation be wet or damp, it must be drained thor-
oughly, so that no stagnant moisture can exist in it. In
the next place, it must be deep ; three feet is a good depth,
and it must not be less than two, where abundant and fine
crops are expected. The mode of preparation is, to dig

THE GRAPE. 273

out the natural soil to the required depth, and the length
and width necessary. For a single vine the border should
be eight or ten feet long and four wide.

When the excavation is made, if the soil be stiff or
damp, a few inches, or a foot deep, of small stones, brick,
rubbish, etc., may be laid on the bottom as a sort of drain-
age. On the top of this, deposit the compost for the
border. This may consist of two parts of good, fresh,
friable loam, one of old, well-rotted manure, and one of
ashes, shells, broken bones, etc., all completely mixed with
one another. The top of the border, when finished, should
be at least a foot higher than the surface of the ground,
so that it may still remain higher after settling.

Position of the Vine or Border. — A southern exposure
is generally considered best, because there the vine is sup-
posed to get the rays of the sun during the entire day;
but an eastern exposure, with sun three-fourths of the day,
is often quite as successful, and especially so with the
early-ripening varieties. A western is next best, while
a northern exposure, with the sun's rays only one-half the
day, should be avoided if possible, but if used the hardy
early-ripening varieties only should be planted.

Planting the Vine. — As in planting any other tree, the
roots should be carefully spread out, and the fine earth
worked well in amongst them. Its position should be ex-
actly in the centre of the trellis it is to be trained on.

The depth to which the roots are covered should never
be less than four inches over the upper or crown line, and
if the position is a southern one and the soil naturally
dry, six to eight inches will be better.

Distance Apart. — This must be regulated somewhat by
the variety of vine planted ; the Concord, Tves', or other
strong-growing sorts, requiring nearly double the room of
the equally healthy and vigorous but short-jointed varie-
ties, like the Delaware, Rebecca, etc.

The Trellis. — Having the border thus prepared, the next
12*

274

PRUNING.

point is the trellis. The form of this will depend on the
situation it is to occupy, and the mode of training to be
adopted. Fig. 132 represents one intended for a wall.
The principal bars or frame- work are inch-and-a-half
boards, three inches wide, nailed together at the angles.

It is intended for one vine, and may be the hight of
the wall that it is intended to occupy. The vertical or
upright bars are three feet apart and the cross ones six
feet ; between them are rods of stout wire. The first or
lowest cross-bar may be two feet from the ground. It is

Fig. 132.— TRELLIS FOB A SINGLE VINE.

fastened to the wall by iron hooks or brackets. The best
and simplest mode of training a vine on such a trellis as
this, is to produce two main branches or arms to be
trained in a horizontal manner on the first cross-bar.
From these two arms, permanent upright canes are
trained, one to each of the upright bars of the trellis.
These upright canes produce on their sides a succession
of bearing shoots from year to year, being pruned after
what is called the *' spur " system.

The trellis may also be made entirely of wires, using
strong half-inch rods for the main uprights and cross-bars,

THE GRAPE.

275

then No. 14 wire for intermediates, and these arranged to
slide along the main rods to meet the requirements of the
vine during its growth. The main rods are secured to
the wall by cylinder hook-staples. A neat and durable
trellis for vines in the open garden along the border (see
fig. 133) may be made by setting firm wooden posts, well
braced, at each end of the line, then stretch one half-inch
rod at say eighteen inches from the ground and another
at the top of the posts, then use No. 9 wire for the re-
maining horizontal lines, and at distances of twelve feet
along the line sustain the horizontal rods and wires by
upright bars of iron one inch wide by one-quarter inch
thick, the lower end of each upright let into a stone in

Fig. 133.— TRELLIS OF WIRES AND POSTS.

the ground. Now place upright wires, secured at the
top and bottom, so that they will slide to meet the wants
of the shoots of the vine. This wire may be of No. 14
or 16. It is not absolutely essential that the trellis be
built until the vines have grown one season ; but if the
vines do well, the cost of supplying temporary stakes,
etc., will more than balance the interest on the cost of
the trellis.

With the vine planted and trellis built we have next to
understand

Pruning. — It must first be observed that the grape-
vine bears its fruit on shoots of the current year, produced

276 PRUNING.

from eyes on the previous year's wood. Fig. 134 repre-
sents the old wood, with its bearing shoot. It is impor-
tant to understand this, because it shows the necessity of
keeping up a supply of young wood wherever we desire
fruit to be produced.

It is immaterial what method of training be pursued,
this principle of production must always be remembered.

To illustrate the pruning, we will suppose the plant to
be one or two years old, as ordinarily sent out from the
nursery. It may have only one shoot, or it may have sev-
eral. However this may be, all are pruned off but the

Fig. 134.— FRUITING BHANCH OF THE GRAPE.
The cross- line near the end shows where it ou«jht to be stopped.

strongest, and it is cut back to within two eyes of its
base. These two eyes will produce shoots, and when they
have made a growth of two or three inches, the weaker
one is rubbed off and the strong one trained up. It is al-
lowed to grow on until September, when the end of the
shoot is pinched to mature and strengthen it. Any side
shoots that appear during the summer should be pinched
off, as well as any suckers that may appear about the
roots.

Fig. 135 shows the condition of the plant or vine at the
close of the first season's growth, and the cross-mark the
line at which to cut in pruning for the

Second Year. — If the shoot of last year made a strong
growth of ten or twelve feet, it may be now cut back to
three eyes, and two canes be trained up ; but if it made

THE GRAPE. 277

only a weak growth, it should again be cut back to two
eyes, and one shoot only trained up.

Side shoots, laterals, or " thallons," as they are some-
times called, should be carefully watch-
ed, and as soon as a leaf has formed
one inch in diameter the shoot should
be pinched off just beyond it, with
thumb and finger. In a short time this
leaf will have become of full size, and
the bud at its base have matured and
again pushed forth a new shoot, which
should be stopped as at first. This
sometimes occurs two, three, or more
times in a season. No suckers from.
below the main canes should be per-
mitted to grow. In September these
canes are to be stopped as before, and
no fruit allowed.

Third Year. — We have now two
strong canes with which we commence
the framework of the vine. Each of
these is cut back at the winter pruning
to within two or three feet, not buds, of
its base, bent in the form of a bow, and
tied to the lower wire of the trellis.
After the buds have started in the
spring, and made a growth of four to
six inches, these canes should be loosen-
ed and laid in, as in fig. 136, and fast-
ened to the lower horizontal bar of
the trellis. The bud on the end of
each at c, will produce a shoot to con-
tinue the prolongment in a horizontal pjg i35._VINE AT THE
direction, and a bud (a) on the upper BND OF THE FIRST TEAK.
side of each will produce a shoot to be trained to one of
the upright bars — the first one on its division, or half of

278

PRUNING.

its trellis ; all others are rubbed off, or the buds cut out.
Thus each of these arms produces two shoots — an up-
right and a horizontal one. During the summer, these

Fig. 136. — VINE WITH ITS ARMS LAID DOWN.

Tlie arms to be shortened at c, the bud a to be allowed to produce a shoot.

shoots are carefully tied in as required, the side shoots
pinched off from time to time, and all suckers rubbed
out as they appear. They are also stopped in September,
as before.

Fourth Year. — Each of last year's shoots is cut back
to within three feet of its base. It may be necessary to
cut the horizontal ones closer than the upright ones, to
obtain another strong upright shoot. The two upright

canes already es-
tablished will pro-
duce a shoot from
their tops, to con-
tinue their exten-
sion upwards, and
the horizontal ones,
as before, produce
a shoot at the point
to be carried out-
wards, and one on
the top to be train-
ed up to one of
the upright bars. This year several fruit shoots will
be produced, on each of which one or two bunches of
grapes may be ripened. In this way the vine goes on
adding every season two new upright canes, and two or
three feet in length to the previous ones, until the whole
trellis is covered ; when the management will consist in

Fig. 137.

Vine with horizontal arras, A, A. and upright per-
manent canes, spur-pruned.

THE GRAPE. 279

pruning the spurs every winter to about three eyes. Each
fruit branch should only be allowed to produce two
bunches of fruit, and when the shoot has made four to six
leaves beyond the last bunch of fruit the end should be
pinched. This will, of course, cause the full development
of the foliage, and in a short time the last bud will push
out a side shoot or lateral, which must again and again
be pinched as it grows. The object of this is to arrest
the production of useless wood and turn the sap to the
benefit of the fruit. Fig. 137 represents the appearance
of a vine trained in this way.

By such a system as this the trellis is covered in every
part with bearing wood, the fruit and the foliage are all
exposed fully to the sun, a uniformity of vigor is main-
tained between the different parts, and the appearance is
beautiful.

There are many other forms of training, each of which
has its merits and its advocates, but it should always be
remembered that the tendency of sap in all vegetation is
toward the extreme shoot, or end, and any system of
training that assists that will soon render weak and barren
the buds nearest the crown. The Thomery system, so
called from its being practised in a little village of that
name in France, is one of the neatest and most systematic,
as well as effective when thoroughly practised, but it re-
quires considerable skill and much labor. It is, in brief,
to form the trellis as we would for any other mode, only
making it higher, the placing the vines at equal distances,
and training the first and third with arms to the lower
wire ; the second and fourth have the main stem carried
up to the second wire, where the arms are formed.

In fruiting, canes are grown annually from spurs along
these arms, and tied as they grow to the upright wires on
the trellis. It is estimated that to keep a vine in good
bearing condition, it should not cover, at any time, over
six to eight feet of one wire of the trellis, and, as before

280 PRUNING.

stated, if the trellis is required to be high, it may be so
done by first training the main stem of the vine to the
hight of trellis wire upon which it is to be grown.

Another mode, termed the Guyot system, consists in
growing two canes upon the vine the second year, one of
which is cut back to two buds, and the other to two or
three feet, and tied down to the lower wire (see fig. 138).
Upon this lower or horizontal cane, the fruit is grown,
and the shoots, as they extend, are tied to the next wire
above. The two canes from the spur are grown to about
five feet, when they are stopped in, and all the season the
pinching of the side shoots, or laterals, is continued, and

Fig. 138. — VINE TRAINED ON THE GUYOT SYSTEM.

all suckers rubbed away. This system is modified or
changed in the hands of some growers, by not fruiting
the horizontal cane the first year it is laid in, but pinching
off all fruit, and carrying upright canes, to be stopped at
the second or third wire, according to strength of vine,
and on them to make the fruit the following year. This
is again changed by some growers spurring back each al-
ternate cane springing from the horizontal one, and so
fruiting alternately. Others, again, cut back these upright
canes from the arm in proportion as they extend from the
main vine. The upright cnne nearest the main vine is thus
left, say two feet, and the next from it fourteen inches, and

THE GRAPE. 281

so reducing that the end of the arm has only a bud from
which to grow a new cane (see fig. 139). This is sup-
posed to assist in move equally distributing the flow of
sap. The upright canes from the main vine are yearly
cut back and renewed for use as arms when wanted.
In cases where the modes of training above described

Fig. 139. — VINE ON THE GUTOT SYSTEM.

cannot be conveniently adopted, two or three poles, twelve
to fifteen feet high, may be sunk in the ground, with a
space of three or four feet between them at the bottom,
and fastened together at the top, forming a cone around
which the permanent canes may be trained in a spiral
manner.

This produces a very beautiful effect, and occupies com-
paratively little space, but the grapes will not all ripen so

282 PRUNING.

well, nor will the training be so easy as on the flat surface
of a trellis.

Another way of arranging the poles is with the tops
outwardly, and securing them at distances by hoops.
This mode gives light and air to the vine, but requires
good stout poles, well set in the ground, to support it
against strong winds.

Very tasteful arbors may also be made over some of the
walks, by training the vine over the wood-work, or wire
frame, in the same manner as on a trellis.

This is a very common practice and offers many advan-
tages. Ingenious persons who care well for their garden,
as well in its appearance as its productions, will conceive
other plans still better adapted to their particular wants
and taste than any of these ; but the main point must
always be kept in view, that is, to provide for the foliage
a free, open exposure to the sun. Any system that does
not secure this, will fail to a greater or less extent.

In the management of a grape-vine, as in the manage-
ment of other trees, summer pruning, i. e., pinching the
ends of shoots, not cutting away of foliage, is of great
consequence. If a vine is left to itself all summer, or from
one winter pruning to another, it will be found that avast
quantity of useless wood has been produced, and that to
the serious detriment of the bearing shoots for the follow-
ing year. The growing vine should be frequently visited,
shoots tied in, strong ones checked, superfluous ones
rubbed off, and every part kept in its proper place, and in
a proper degree of vigor.

VINEYARD CULTURE.

A quarter of a century since, taking our knowledge of
position, soils, etc., from the vineyards of Europe, we sup-
posed that hill-sides, or warm, sheltered positions only,
were suited to the culture of the grape, but thanks to the

THE GRAPE. 283

energy and spirit of trial which pervades the people of
this country, we have now such a variety, and so suited
to soils, climates, and localities, that the culture of the
grape may be said to be adapted, in the way of profitable
culture, to nearly every variety of soil, climate, or location.

The quantity of grapes produced as an item of profit
per acre, depends much upon soils, location, nearness to
market, and variety grown. The statements of growers
vary greatly in the amount, all the way from one and a
half tons to five and six tons per acre, and the gross re-
ceipts are given all the way from three hundred to eight
hundred dollars.

Such varieties as the Concord, Isabella, etc., it may be
safely estimated, will produce one year with another from
two to three tons, and the Delaware, Miles, etc., from one
and a half to two tons per acre. Season's, insects, and
diseases, care and culture will, of course, vary results, and
while the grower may one season obtain four tons to the
acre, the same vines another year may not produce over
one ton of fine, marketable fruit.

It should, however, be remembered that while certain
varieties of the grape can be grown in varied soils and
locations, there is a requisite to be obtained for the pro-
duction of the richest grapes and the best vines ; that
requisite being in the sugar contained in the fruit, and only
to be had in the grape when planted in soil and location
exactly suited to its best development.

The grower who seeks only for a table market, has first
to select the variety to meet his soil and location, and
then to grow large berries and bunches, well colored, and
just sufficiently matured to make them vinously sweet.
The grower for wine purposes must have another view —
for his crop value depends upon the full maturation of the
sugar in his grapes.

Soils and Situation. — Although we have said such is
the variety of grapes now cultivated that some one may

284 PRUNING.

be selected for nearly every soil and location, yet we do
not thereby desire to convey the idea that all soils and lo-
cations are equally adapted to the grape. Our experience
and observation have taught us that it is only upon a com-
paratively few locations and soils that the best grapes are
produced. A high elevation, sloping to the east and
south, or, if a large lake or body of water lie on the
north, then a gentle slope to the south, as along the south
shore of Lake Erie, with a soil of clay underlaid with
broken shale rock, is, perhaps, the best of all soils and lo-
cations. The next to this is a rolling and moderately ele-
vated position, adjacent to some large body of water, a
stiff clay, with an underlay of shale rock ; next, is the
same location with a clay soil resting on a gravel bed.
The next is a good, rich, clayey loam, resting upon a shale
or gravel bed, and lying nearly level ; and the last we
would use for the grape, in any case, is a light, sandy
loam, resting either upon a compact yellow sand or a
gravel. This last will produce fine, handsome bunches,
of many varieties, but the durability of vines in such
localities is doubtful.

Shelter. — Shelter is not indispensable to all vineyards,
but many localities exposed to violent winds may be
benefited materially by the planting of groups or masses
of trees, at proper distances, on the side from whence
come the strongest winds. Evergreens ameliorate the
temperature of the winds better than deciduous trees,
but, in absence of them, the planting of Beech, Maple,
etc., will assist in checking the liability to sudden
changes, and protect the vines and fruit from the effects
of the high wind, which, as we now write, October, 1871,
has done much damage to our own vineyard.

Preparation of the Soil. — The first preparation of the
soil is an important item in the forming of a vineyard.
The vigor and healthiness of the first and second years'
growth of the vine often decide their future. No young

THE GRAPE. 285

plants, with small fibrous roots, can be made to grow
rapidly unless the soil be fine and rich. This applies to the
grape-vine ; hence the necessity of making the soil for the
planting of the vineyard deep and rich at the outset. If
the land is level so that it can be plowed, then plow it as
deep as possible with the common plow, and follow in
the furrow with a subsoil plow, thus loosening the ground
to a depth of not less than sixteen to twenty inches, the
deeper the better. Hill-sides not too steep may be pre-
pared by using a side-hill plow, and in plowing leaving
a strip of three or four feet unplowed at distances of
from eight to twenty feet, for the purpose of prevent-
ing washing. Very steep hill-sides must be dug with
the pick and spade. If the ground is not what is called
in good heart, but has been cropped yearly without
manure, it should be dressed with a coat of ashes, bone-
dust, or well-rotted barn-yard manure, and worked in with
the harrow or cultivator.

Time to Plant. — Where the soil is well drained, or of a
light sandy or loamy character, and the climate not too se-
vere, we should prefer to plant in the fall. In such case we
should cover the entire plant with an inch or so of soil, to
be removed as soon as the frost will permit, in the spring.
The advantages of planting in the fall are, that as a rule
the ground works better, and the work is therefore better
done; add to this that the earth becomes well settled
among the roots and often new fibres will be thrown out,
ready for growth in spring. But we have planted at all
periods, when the ground would work, from October to
June, and, if our plants were in good condition, have been
successful.

Kind of Plants. — Vines one or two years old, with
well-ripened tops and roots, the latter one quarter of an
inch in diameter, are perhaps the best, whether grown
from single or triple-eyed cuttings, or by layers.

Distance to Plant. — The distance apart at which to

286 PRUNING.

plant must depend upon the soil, variety, and mode of
training, separately and collectively. Nearly all varieties
have a tendency to make more wood in light, sandy, grav-
elly, or loamy soils, than on clays. Strong, rampant-
growing sorts, as the Concord, Ives', Norton's Virginia,
Clinton, etc., on loamy or rich soils, should have at
least ten or twelve feet space on the row, and the rows
eight feet apart. If the ground is of a heavy clay, then
the distance on the rows may be reduced two feet. For
varieties like Catawba, lona, etc., eight feet apart each
way is about right. Delaware, Walter, and other short-
jointed varieties may be planted at six feet in the rows,
the rows eight feet. The above, if the training is to be
upon trellis, in any of the renewal modes. If the train-
ing is to be on stakes, in the serpentine or bow system,
then the distance may be reduced one foot each way. For
very long pruning and training on trellis, the distance
must be increased, some cultivators planting at twelve
feet, with the vines eighteen feet apart in the row.

Depth to Plant. — In heavy soils the upper tier of roots
should always have at least four to five inches of earth
over them, and in light or dry soils six to eight inches.

Pruning — when and how. — For the annual or winter
pruning the best time is as soon as the wood is ripened in
the fall, but the work may be done any time until the
warmth of spring starts a rapid circulation of sap. Never
cut close to a bud, but leave an inch or two of wood be-
yond. For summer pruning, see Garden Culture, page
276, and for the length of wood left at the winter pruning,
refer to the method of training that it is proposed to
practise.

Modes of Training. — Under the head of Garden Cul-
ture, we have described several modes of training that
are sometimes practised in the vineyard, to which the
reader is referred. In Ohio and Missouri, the mode gen-
erally practised is called the renewal-cane system, and con-

THE GRAPE. 287

sists in yearly cutting away all the wood of two years
old or more. The vine is taken, say at the close of the
second summer, with, as supposed, three good strong
canes grown from a point near the ground ; two of these
canes are cut back to from four to six feet, according to
the strength of the vine, and are tied to the lower wire
in a bowed shape (see fig. 140), while the third cane is
cut back to three or five buds, according to the age and
vigor of the vine. The long bent canes are for fruiting,
while on the shoots that grow from the centre cane all
the fruit is rubbed off. The next season the bearing canes

Fig. 140.— BOW TRAINING.

are cut away, two or three new canes are laid in for fruit,
the centre cane cut back as before, for new shoots, and so
from year to year the practice repeated. Some vignerons
practise training and fruiting by leaving very long canes,
with more or less of the laterals, these latter being pruned
to one or two buds, from which, it is claimed, some of the
best fruit is grown. Such varieties as the Clinton, Nor-
ton's Virginia, Concord, etc., are by some considered best
when grown in this way.

Training upon stakes is a practice esteemed by many
as giving better circulation of air among the vines. Some
use two stakes, on one of which two canes of the previ-

288

PRUNING.

ous year's growth are tied spirally (see fig. 141), and on
the other the new shoots are conducted as they grow, and
tied so as not to be removed. In the winter pruning these
canes are shortened, and those that
bore last year are cut down for the
production of new canes.

Another practice is to use three
stakes, on the centre one of which
the new shoots are grown, and on
the two outside ones a cane is train-
ed for fruiting. Another system
of training on stakes is to cut back
the vine to three or four eyes for
fruiting, and two or so for new
canes ; the whole, then, as they
grow, are trained to the one stake.
This practice answers for some weak
growers, or for those with sparse
foliage, but is not advisable with
strong-growing, vigorous sorts.

For more complete details of
modes of grape-growing and prun-
ing, we refer to the various valuable books devoted ex-
clusively to the subject.

Fig. 141.— SPIRAL TRAIN-
ING.

CULTURE OF FOREIGN GRAPES IN COLD VINERIES.

Repeated experiments made during many years in all
parts of the country, have convinced people generally that
the delicious varieties of the foreign grape cannot be pro-
duced with any considerable degree of success in the open
air. A large number of the hardiest French and German
sorts have been tested in our ground, but not one of them
has borne satisfactorily. A few good bunches have been
obtained the first season or two under very favorable cir-

THE GKAPE. 289

cumstances ; but after that the failure is complete. This
has rendered glass, heat, and shelter necessary.

The Buildings. — These are constructed of all sizes
and at various degrees of expense. Some have single
lean-to roofs ; others have double or span roofs. The
walls of some are built of brick or stone ; others are
wholly of wood. The cheapest and simplest structure
of this kind is the lean-to. The back may be nine or
ten feet high, composed of strong cedar posts six feet
apart, and boarded up on both sides. The ends are
made in the same manner. The front may be two or
three feet high, made of posts, and boards or planks, same
as the back. Sills or plates are put on the front and back
walls, and then rafters at three and a half to four feet
apart. The sashes slip in between the rafters, and rest on
a strip of wood on their sides. Unless the grapery be
very small, the sash should be in two parts, the lower one
twice as long as the upper, and fixed ; the upper to slide
down over the under one on pulleys, to ventilate the house.
Doors are in each end at the back, and means are provided
for admitting air in front by the opening of boards like
shutters.

But a cheap structure is not the best economy, and while
such may be admissible, on a merely commercial place, it
would be out of character in any neatly kept grounds.
The maxim, that " whatever is worth doing is worth
doing well," holds good in the construction of a grapery,
and therefore, however plain the architecture of the de-
sign, the materials should be of -the best, the arrangement
convenient, and the putting together done in a workman-
like manner.

Lean-to or single-roof houses may frequently be built
against the south or east side of a wall or out-building,
and thus can be constructed cheaply, but a span-roofed
house is much the best.

Fig. 142 gives a good representation of a single-roof
13

290

THE GKAPE.

house against a wall, and fig. 143 represents a span cur-
vilinear - roofed
house, 20 x 30
feet, which we
have built upon
our own grounds
and found very
successful.

Fig. 144 is a
representation of
a straight - roof
house, for cold
grapery, taken
from Woood-
ward's Graperies.

Position of
House. — A south
or south - east
fronting is the
best for a lean-to
house, and for
span roofs a north
and south line af-
fords the most
equal amount of
sunlight.

The border is
made for the
vines outside the
front wall, or part
outside and part
in, twelve to six-
teen feet wide,
also two or three
deep. This is
done by digging a trench or pit the length and width;

THE GKAPE.

291

draining it thoroughly, that not a drop of water can lodge
about it. Then lay a few inches of small stones, broken
bricks, shells, etc., in the bottom for drainage ; and fill up
the remainder, six inches to two feet above the level of
the ground, and sloping outwards, with a good compost,
of three-fourths surface loam (turf from an old pasture),
and the other of well-rotted stable manure. All these
must be prepared by frequent turning and mixing a few
months beforehand.

The vines may be one or two years old, and are prefer-

. 143.— SPAN CURVILINEAR-ROOFED HOUSE.

able raised in pots from single eyes. They should be
planted in the spring. A plant is placed under each rafter
outside, or inside, and carried through under the wall
into the house. The stem is cut back to two or three
eyes, and when these break the strongest shoot is selected,
and the others pinched off. This shoot is trained, as it
grows, to a light trellis of iron, or thick wire rods attached
to the rafter, and twelve to fifteen inches from the glass.
If all goes well, it reaches the top of the house that sea-
son. In September the top may be pinched to check the
flow of sap, and throw it more into the lateral buds to
increase their strength. During the summer no other
shoot is allowed to grow but this.

292

THE GRAPE.

Pruning.— In. November or December it is taken down,
pruned, if according to the spur system, which is the

simplest, to within
three or four feet of
its base, laid on the
ground, and covered
with leaves, evergreen
^ boughs, or mats. There
"| it remains till the buds
H begin to swell in the
J spring, when it is
again fastened to the
trellis. The shoot from
the terminal bud con-
tinues the cane, and no
fruit is allowed on it.
Those below it pro-
duce lateral shoots,
from each of which a
bunch of grapes may
be taken, and each of
these must be stopped
at three eyes above
the bunch ; and this is
repeated as often as
necessary, to give the
fruit the whole benefit
of the sap. The lead-
ing shoot is again
stopped in September
by pinching off its
point, to increase the
vigor of its lateral
buds. In the fall,
when the leaves have dropped, the vine is again taken
down. The leader is pruned back to within three to

THE GRAPE. 293

four feet of the old wood. The laterals that have borne
are pruned to three eyes, and it is then covered up. This
is the routine of spur training. In long cane pruning, the
young shoot, after the first season's growth, is cut back to
three eyes, and the next season two shoots are trained up.
The next season the strongest is selected for fruit, and
pruned to about three feet ; each of the eyes left will pro-
duce a fruit shoot, from which one bunch only will be
taken. The weaker cane is cut back to one eye, and this
produces a shoot for next year's bearing, and so this goes
on. When the vine becomes strong, several bearing canes
may be provided for every season. This renewal or long
cane is very simple, and requires much less cutting than
the spur. It also produces a superior quality of fruit, but
in general not so large a quantity.

Thinning the Fruit. — When the fruit attains the size
of a garden pea, one third of the smaller ones should be
cut out carefully with pointed scissors (see implements)
that are prepared for this purpose. The object of this is,
to allow the fruits to swell out to their full size. Varieties
that produce very compact bunches require more severe
thinning than those of a loose, open bunch.

Cleaning the Vine. — At the time the vines are taken
from their winter quarters and trellised, they should be
well washed with a solution of soft soap and tobacco-
water, to kill all eggs of insects, and remove all loose
bark and filth that may have accumulated on them during
the season previous. The house, too, should be cleaned
and renovated at the same time.

Syringing the Vines and the Fruit. — Every one who
has a grapery must be provided with a good hand-syringe,
for this is necessary during the whole season. As soon as
they begin to grow, they should be occasionally syringed
in the morning, except while they are in bloom. After
the fruit has set, they should be syringed every evening,
and the house kept closed until the next forenoon when

294 ORCHARD HOUSES.

the sun is out warm. The inside border should receive
frequent and ample supplies of water. In a dry time the
outside border should also be freely watered.

Regulating the Temperature. — When the temperature
exceeds ninety to one hundred degrees, air should be ad-
mitted at the top, and, if necessary, at the bottom. The
admission of abundance of air is one of the important
features of the management of the grapery.

To Prevent Mildew. — This may be looked for in July.
Syringing freely night and morning, and the admission of
air during the warmest hours of the day, are the best pre-
ventives of this disease. Dust sulphur on the floor, at the
rate of one pound for every twenty square feet ; and if the
mildew continues to increase, syringe the vines in the even-
ing, and dust the foliage with sulphur.

This is but an imperfect outline of the management of
a cold grapery. Those who wish full information on all
points of the subject, should consult some of the special
treatises on the culture of the grape under glass.

ORCHARD HOUSES.

The advantages of glass structures for the growing of
all varieties of fruits are but yet little appreciated. By
means of the orchard house, peaches, apricots, and indeed
all varieties of fruits may be grown without fear of insects
or frost.

By it the owner of a small garden or city lot can secure
to himself a large amount of fruit grown in a small space,
and at a time when it cannot be purchased.

To the commercial fruit-grower the orchard house of-
fers pecuniary profit from the sale of fruit ; and to the
nurseryman it is becoming yearly more and more a neces-
sity, toward testing the correctness of new varieties from
which to propagate.

The construction of an orchard house is similar to that

ORCHARD HOUSES. 295

of a grapery, except that it should be higher at the sides,
with the roof more flattened, in order that the trees may
be brought as near the glass as possible. Ventilation is
an important item, as too groat heat, or a confined atmos-
phere, are incompatible with success. A span-roof house
should have ventilators all along the bottom and top, and
lean-to houses require even more openings than span-roofs.

Mr. Rivers, of England, who first set in motion the art
of fruiting trees in the house, built his first houses like
sheds, or what is termed lean-to, and. so far the most of
the structures erected in this country for this purpose
have been of that style. The house of Mr. Pullen, in
New Jersey, which has proved a commercial success, is
fourteen feet wide and one hun-
dred feet long. The house of
Mr. Lovering is the same width,
with the back wall twelve feet
and the front wall four feet
high. Fig. 145 is an end view,
taken from Dr. Norris' work on
" Fruit Trees in Pots," in which
the interior arrangement is
given as follows: "The fruit
border (three feet six inches
wide) is raised nine incl.es above rlg' 145-E™ VIEW OTHOCSE'
the walk (which is two feet six inches wide) ; the first
back border is three feet wide and raised sixteen inches
above the walk. The second back border is raised one
foot above the front one and is four feet wide."

In " Peach Culture," by J. A. Fulton, a lean-to house,
twelve feet wide by fifty feet long, is described, with the
back wall fourteen feet high and the front four feet (see
fig. 146). In this house it will be seen that the lower range
of sash is hung on hinges to a plate securing the lower
ends of the upper sash, and no other ventilation is sup-
plied, except by the opening of doors. It is designed, in

296

OKCHAKD HOUSES.

this house, to grow the plants in the ground, not in pots
or tubs — a practice which we, from our own experience,
cannot recommend.

Some years since we built upon our own grounds a span-
roof house, twenty-five by seventy feet, which we have
used very successfully (fig. 147). The interior arrange-
ment is with border along the sides, a walk three feet wide

F.j;. 146. — PEAGH-HOUSE (from Fultorfs Peach Culture).

all around, and a bed in center, the beds or tables all on
the same level.

The advantages of a span-roof house over a lean-to, by
the greater and more equable diffusion of light, and the
more tasteful appearance which can be made both out-
side and inside, point to it as the most desirable.

Fig. 148 shows a section of a movable house on iron
supports, the house fourteen feet wide and constructed
of length as desired. These houses are built in England
— our sketch is from Pearson — but we do not know of any
in this country.

Although the first growing by Mr. Rivers was of trees
in a house free from artificial heat, yet he has found the
advantage of heating, and it is proved that with us a

ORCHARD HOUSES.

297

certain amount of artificial heat is necessary, in order to
get the fruit much in advance of what it would be out
of doors.

Varieties of Trees. — The peach, nectarine, apricot, plum,
and cherry are the fruits for which the orchard-house may
be said to have been specially designed, and if the house
be small, they alone should occupy it. Large houses will,
of course, give room for the pear and apple, for the fig,
orange, etc.

It is not absolutely necessary that the varieties be

Fig. 147. — SPAN-ROOF ORCHARD-HOUSE.

worked on stocks as dwarfs, but when such can be had,
the peach and nectarine on the plum, and the cherry on
the mahaleb, will be found to assist toward early maturity,
and the compressed artificial growth which the restricted
limits of this mode of culture command.

Trees in Tubs or Pots. — The first orchard-house grow-
ing of trees was in pots, but we have found in practice
that boxes of about fifteen inches diameter at top, ten
inches at bottom, and twenty inches deep, with the bot-
tom board set an inch or more above the side pieces (see
fig. 149), and with holes for drainage, gave us better stow-
age when we desired to pack away the trees for winter,
and were also less liable to accident and injury, which
sometimes occur from breaking of pots. It has been
asserted that the porous nature of the pots was an advan-
tage, but we found success in the boxes, as do hundreds of
13*

298

ORCHAED HOUSES.

others who for years grow oleanders, figs, oranges, etc.,
in tubs. One-year-old trees from the nursery are the best
with which to commence.

Management. — The young tree being potted, using good,
fresh turf loam two parts, and one part well-decomposed
manure, cut it back to about one foot, and if there are
any side branches grown, cut them back to one or two
buds. The first season the tree may be grown in the open
air, the pots or boxes plunged in the ground. As the

Fig1. 148. — SECTION OF MOVABLE HOUSE ON IRON SUPPORTS.

young shoots grow, the side branches should be stopped
when they have made a foot or so of growth. Watering
must be attended to during the heat of summer, but as
autumn approaches it should be graduated, in order .to
have the wood ripen off finely.

In autumn, as soon as the wood is well ripened, or on
approach of cold weather, the trees should be removed
to the house, the boxes plunged in soil, and the whole
covered with mats or straw. If the house is not ready,
the trees may be stacked on their sides in a shed, and pro-
tected by having straw or leaves packed in, among, around,
and over them.

We have found this practice quite successful and much
superior to that of a cellar.

ORCHARD HOUSES.

299

If fire heat is to be used, it should be started sometime
in January, and the temperature by day kept at from 80°
to 90°, sinking at night to from 40° to 50°. If the fruit
is to be obtained by means
only of the protection and
heat of the glass, then the
trees should remain covered
until all risk of severe frosts
has passed. As the season
advances the heat will, of
course, be increased. Great
care should be given to the
watering, keeping the trees
always moist, but never wet,
and also to ventilation. The
spring or winter pruning is
best done just as the trees
come into bloom, but if the
summer pinching is attend-
ed to there will be little or
no occasion for any winter
pruning.

The introduction of bees
into the house at blooming
time will assist greatly in fer-
tilization. In their absence
the tree should be occasion-
ally jarred by a slight blow

from the hand. As the period of ripening approaches, or
as soon as they begin to show color, the trees should be
removed to a warm, sheltered spot in the open air, and
the boxes plunged in the ground. During the season, or
until the tubs are removed to the open air, for ripening
the fruit, they should be lifted and turned every ten days
to check the growth of outside roots. Watering with
liquid manure assists in giving vigor to the tree, and size

149 TREE GROWN IN BOX.

300

ORCHARD HOUSES.

to the fruit. The aphis and red spider are best kept in
check by fumigating with tobacco.

Propagating Houses. — Small glass houses for the pur-
pose of propagating rare plants, keeping plants in winter,
or starting them forward in the spring, may be built very
cheaply, and, attached to any considerable garden, may be
made both profitable and pleasantly useful.

The span-roof house costs really but a trifle more than

o o

0 o

Fig. 150. — SECTION OF PROPAGATIXG-HOU3E.

a lean-to, when the surface covered is estimated, and it is
so much more ornamental, so much easier managed, and
the opportunity to give plants the position and light re-
quired, is so much greater, that we wonder it is not more
generally adopted.

It is not always possible to select a location in just the
best place, but when this can be done the ends of the
house should be north and south, and it should be where
perfect drainage may be had, after having excavated three
feet deep, for the purpose of sinking the side walls be-
low the level of the ground, and thereby reducing the ex-
pense of heating. Twelve feet is a good width, while
the length may be regulated to suit the proprietor's wants.

THE PILBEBT. 301

Heating with hot water is unquestionably best, but
many good houses are now, and will continue to be,
warmed by means of brick flues, or, what is perhaps
better and cheaper, by sections of stone pipe.

A series of connected houses, that we have built, are
twelve feet wide and eighty feet long, and we know of
nothing better, for a single house, than one of these by
itself (fig. 150). In this the sashes are fixed permanently to
the ridge-pole and plate, and ventilation obtained by cutting
away the sash-bars at top, at distances of ten feet, and
forming a frame to be hung on hinges. Movable sash-
bars or frames are by some preferred, and where there is
any other use for them than as applied to the house
proper, they are probably best.

Bottom heat is obtained when the house is heated by
flues or pipes, by simply inclosing the space along one
side, below the bench, with boarding, leaving the upper
board hung on hinges, so that the heat may be let into
the house as required.

Tanks of hot water as the base for forming bottom-
heat are also used, and when great care is practised they
are of the best ; but there is a liability to dampness in
houses so heated, and in extreme cold weather it is diffi-
cult to get heat in the main part of the house without too
much for the plants.

SECTION 0. — PRUNING AND THAUTING THE FILBEET.

The filbert in this country is a neglected fruit. It is
seldom found in the garden, and more rarely still in a pro-
lific, well-grown condition. Of all other trees, it requires
regular and proper pruning to maintain its fruitful ness.
The blossoms are monoecious — that is, the male organs,
which are in long catkins (fig. 37), are produced from one
bud, and the female flowers from another.

The blossom or fruit buds are produced on shoots of

302 THE FILBERT.

one year's growth, and bear fruit the next. The fruit is
borne in a cluster on the end of a small twig produced
from the bud bearing the female organs.

It is said that in the neighborhood of Maidstone, county
of Kent, England, the filbert orchards occupy several
hundred acres, and from these the principal supply of
the London market is obtained. One acre has been known
to produce £50 sterling, or $250 worth, in one season.
The pruning of these Kent growers is supposed to bo
most perfect of its kind, especially for their soil and cli-
mate. It is described as follows in the " Transactions of
the London Horticultural Society : "

" The suckers are taken from the parent plant generally
in the autumn, and planted in nursery beds (being first .
shortened to ten or twelve inches), where they remain
three or four years. They are slightly pruned every year,
in order to form strong lateral shoots, the number of
which varies from four to six. But though it is the usual
practice to plant the suckers in nursery beds, I would ad-
vise every one to plant them where they are to remain,
whether they are intended for a garden or a larger planta-
tion ; and after being suffered to grow without restraint
for three or four years, to cut them down within a few
inches of the ground. From the remaining part, if the
trees are well rooted in the soil, five or six strong shoots
will be produced. Whichever method is practised, the
subsequent treatment of the trees will be exactly the
same.

" In the second year after cutting down, these shoots
are shortened ; generally one third is taken off. If very
weak, I would advise that the trees be cut quite down a
second time, as in the previous spring ; but it would be
much better not to cut them down until the trees give
evident tokens of their being able to produce shoots
of sufficient strength. When they are thus shortened,
that they may appear regular, let a small hoop be placed

THE FILBERT. 303

within the branches, to which the shoots are to be fas-
tened at equal distances. By this practice two consider-
able advantages will be gained — the trees will grow more
regular, and the middle will be kept hollow, so as to ad-
mit the influence of the sun and air.

" In the third year a shoot will spring from each bud ;
these must be suffered to grow until the following autumn,
or fourth year, when they are to be cut off nearly close
to the original stem, and the leading shoot of the last year
shortened two-thirds.

" In the fifth year several small shoots will arise from
the bases of the side branches which were cut off the pre-
ceding year. These are produced from small buds, send
would not have been emitted had not the branch on which
they are situated been shortened, the whole nourishment
being carried to the upper part of the branch. It is from
these shoots that fruit is to be expected. These produc-
tive shoots will in a few years become very numerous,
and many of them must be taken off, particularly the
strongest, in order to encourage the production of the
smaller ones, for those of the former year become so ex-
hausted that they generally decay ; but whether decayed
or not, they are always cut out by the pruner, and a fresh
supply must therefore be provided to produce the fruit in
the succeeding year. The leading shoot is every year to
be shortened two-thirds, or more should the tree be weak,
and the whole hight of the branches must not exceed
six feet.

" The method of pruning above detailed might, in a few
words, be called a method of spurring, by which bearing
shoots are produced, which otherwise would have had no
existence. Old trees are easily induced to bear in this
manner, by selecting a sufficient number of the main
branches, and then cutting the side shoots off, nearly close,
excepting any should be so situated as not to interfere
with the others, and there should be no main branch di-

304 THE FILBERT.

rected to that particular part. It will, however, be two
or three years before the full effect will be produced. By
the above method of pruning, thirty hundred per acre
have been grown in particular grounds and in particular
years, yet twenty hundred is considered a large crop, and
rather more than half that quantity maybe called a more
usual one ; and even then the crop totally fails three years
out of five ; so that the annual average quantity cannot
be reckoned at more than five hundred per acre.

" When I reflected upon the reason of failure happening
so often as three years out of five, it occurred to me that
possibly it might arise from the excessive productiveness of
the other two. In order to insure fruit every year, I have
usually left a large proportion of those shoots which, from
their strength, I suspected would not be so productive of
blossom-buds as the shorter ones ; leaving them more in
a state of nature than is usually done, not pruning them
so closely as to weaken the trees by excessive bearing,
nor leaving them so entirely to their natural growth as to
cause their annual productiveness to be destroyed by a
superfluity of wood. These shoots, in the spring of the
year, I have usually shortened to a blossom-bud."

Such is the management of these celebrated filbert
growers, their principal object being to keep the trees
small, open in the center, and covered in every part with
fruit spurs. A similar system, but less severe in the cut-
ting back, may be pursued here ; some such course of
treatment as recommended for the head of the quince as
to form and fruitfulness.

Instead of relying on the spring pruning to subdue
vigor and induce fruitfulness, pinching should be practised
during the summer; for this not only checks the produc-
tion of wood, but of roots. Root pruning, too, may be
safely practised in August, when pruning and pinching of
the branches prove insufficient.

In all cases, suckers must be completely eradicated

» THE FIG. 305

every season, or as soon as they make their appearance.
The want of pruning, and the growth of suckers, make
the filbert in nearly all our gardens completely barren ; a
rank production of wood only is obtained year after year.
We find that grafting the finer kinds on stocks of the
common filbert raised from seed, renders the trees much
more prolific naturally, and also smaller in size. We have
trees here now bearing only three years from the graft ;
the stems are eighteen inches to two feet high, and they
are very pretty. Their natural vigor is greatly subdued
by the graft. The French conduct them in pyramids with
great success, on the same principle as other trees.

SECTION 10. — CULTURE, PRUNING, AND TRAINING OF
THE FIG.

In the Northern States the fig is cultivated with very
little success in the open ground, but fine crops are pro-
duced in the vineries recommended for foreign grapes ;
and it is in these only that its culture can yield any con-
siderable degree of satisfaction, north of Maryland at
least.

Propagation. — The surest and best mode is by layers.
A large branch may be layered in the spring, and will be
sufficiently rooted in the fall to be planted out. Cuttings
also strike freely, and make good plants in one season.
All the modes of propagation recommended for the quince,
may be applied to the fig. Cuttings are generally pre-
ferred in the South.

Soil. — It succeeds in any good, rich, warm garden soil,
suitable for other fruit trees. In very light or dry soils
the fruits fall before maturity, as they require at that
season in particular a large amount of moisture ; but it is
better that it be too dry than too moist, for in the latter
case nothing but soft unripe and unfruitful shoots are ob-
tained, whilst in the former, moisture can be supplied at

306 THE PIG.

the time when it may be required. The wood should be
short-jointed, the buds not more than one-fourth an inch
apart. In England dry chalky soils produce the finest
crops.

Pruning. — The fig is somewhat peculiar in its mode of
bearing. iSTo blossoms appear, but the figs are produced
on the stem, appearing at first like buds. The young
shoots of last season bear fruit the next ; and the shoots
produced during first growth produce fruit the same season,
and this is called the " second crop." These never ripen,
and should never be encouraged where the plants require
protection. In warm climates, as in some of our South-
ern States, these two crops ripen perfectly, though the
first from the previous season's wood is larger and better.

This mode of bearing shows that little pruning is neces-
sary, beyond the cutting away of old or worn-out branch-
es, and thinning and regulating others. Unfruitful trees,
in a moist and rich ground, should be pinched in summer
to check their growth, and concentrate the sap more in
the lateral buds. Root-pruning, too, may be applied as
on other trees. Mr. Downing recommends this in his
"Fruits and Fruit Trees."

Training. — Wherever the trees are hardy enough to
withstand the winter without protection, as in the South-
ern States or California, they may be grown in the form
of low standards, as recommended for the peach ; but
when protection is required, where the branches have to
be laid down and covered during winter, they must be
grown in stools or bushes, with a dozen or more stems
rising from the socket. These are easily laid down and
covered, and easily brought up to their places again, in
the way that raspberry canes are managed. To produce
this form, the young tree is planted in the bottom of a
trench about a third deeper than in ordinary cases, and a
basin is left around it. At the end of the first season's
growth, it is cut back to a few inches of the base ; there

THE GOOSEBERRY. 307

a number of shoots are produced. As these grow up the
earth is drawn in around them, to favor the production
of other shoots at their base ; and in this way it is man-
aged until the requisite number of branches is obtained.

Protection. — Trained in this way, a trench is opened
for each branch, or three or four maybe put in one trench,
if convenient ; they are fastened down with hooked pegs
as in layering, and covered with a foot of earth, which
should be drawn up in the mound form, to throw off the
water.

The fig is sometimes grown, at the North, in large pots
or tubs, and stored in a cool cellar or pit during winter.

Ripening the Fruit. — In fig-growing countries, and to
some extent here, there is a practice of applying a drop
of olive oil to the eye of the fruit, to hasten its maturity.
This is usually done by means of a straw.

Training in Graperies. — The back wall of a lean-to
cold vinery is an excellent place for the fig. It may be
trained on a trellis in a fan or horizontal manner, but
severe pruning must not be practised to produce regu-
larity.

SECTION 11. — PRUNING THE GOOSEBERRY.

The gooseberry produces fruit buds and spurs on wood
two years old and upwards. Fig. 151 represents the two-
year-old wood, A, with fruit buds (7, (7, and J5, the one-year-
old wood with wood buds, ./), D. Of these wood buds,
the upper one next season would produce a shoot, and the
lower ones would probably be transformed into fruit buds.
At the base of one of the fruit buds, <7, may be seen a
small wood bud, d ; this during next season will produce
a small shoot or spur. The great point to aim at in this
country must always be to maintain a vigorous condi-
tion ; the moment the plant becomes feeble or stinted, the
fruit is so attacked with mildew or rust as to be utterly

308

THE GOOSEBERRY.

/(/

worthless. Hence it is that young plants usually bear ex-
cellent crops for the first or second year, while after that the
mildew is in some varieties and situations
unconquerable.

The bush should have a stem of three or
four inches in hight, and a head composed
of five or six main branches placed at equal
distances and inclined outwards, to prevent
denseness and confusion in the center. These
main branches should be furnished with
bearing wood in all their length. The pro-
duction of such a bush may be accomplished
by the following means :

Supposing the young plant as it comes
from the nursery to be either a two-year-ofd
cutting, or a one-year bedded layer ; in
either case it will have a stem of two or
three inches at least, and a few branches at
the top. Before planting, all the buds on
the part of the stem to be below the ground
are cut out, to prevent them from producing
suckers. Among the branches, three of those
most favorably situated, are selected for the
Branch of the f°rmation of the head, and the others are
gooseberry. A, cut out entirely. The reserved branches are

two . year - old ^ t j k t t tn b d f

wood ; B, one

year; (7, c, fruit- these one shoot is taken on each branch, and
buds; />, Awood- the others are pinched to favor this. By this

buds; d, a small *_ J

wood-bud at the method we shall nave three stout shoots in
base of fruit - the fall. If the plant had been well rooted,
instead of being newly transplanted, we
might have taken two shoots instead of one from each
shortened branch. These three branches are cut back at
the next pruning to three or four buds, and from each
two new shoots are taken, giving at the end of that sea-
son six stout young shoots, situated at equal distances.

Fig. 151.

THE GOOSEBERRY. 309

At the next or third pruning these branches are cut back
about one-half, in order to produce lateral branches and
fruit spurs. At the fourth pruning, the leading shoot is
shortened one-third to one-half. Any lateral branches not
required to fill up spaces, or such as are improperly
placed, are cut back to three or four buds, so as to
convert them into fruit-branches.

In this way the priming is conducted from year to year.
When the plants become feeble from overbearing, the
fruit branches may be headed down and replaced by new
vigorous shoots. The better way, however, to provide
for this difficulty, is to raise young plants from layers or
cuttings, to be at once substituted for such as fall a victim
to the mildew. A northern aspect, a cool, damp, substan-
tial soil, and abundance of manure, are all necessary, in
connection with the pruning described, to produce fine
gooseberries.

The famous growers of Lancashire, England, outdo all
the world besides in the production of large gooseberries.
The Encyclopaedia of Gardening says : " To effect this
increased size, every stimulant is applied that their inge-
nuity can suggest ; they not only annually manure the
soil richly, but also surround the plants with trenches of
manure for the extremities of the roots to strike into, and
form round the stem of each plant a basin, to be mulched,
or manured, or watered, as may become necessary. When
a root has extended too far from the stem it is uncovered,
and all the strongest leaders are shortened back nearly
one-half of their length, and covered with fresh marly
loam, well manured. The effect of this pruning is to in-
crease the number of fibres and spongioles, which form
rapidly on the shortened roots, and strike out in all direc-
tions among the fresh, newly stirred loam, in search of
nutriment."

They also practise what they term suckling their prize
fruit. By preparing a very rich soil, and by watering,

310 THE CURRANT.

and the use of liquid manure, shading and thinning, the
large fruit of the prize cultivator is produced. Not con-
tent with watering at root, and over the top, the Lanca-
shire connoisseur, when he is growing for exhibition, places
a small saucer of water immediately under each goose-
berry, only three or four of which he leaves on a tree ;
this he technically calls suckling. He also pinches off a
great part of the young wood, so as to throw all the
strength he can into the fruit.

SECTION 12. — PRUNING AND MANAGEMENT OF THE
CURRANT.

The red and white currants bear, like the gooseberry, on
wood not less than two years old, nnd therefore the same
system of pruning may be applied to them. The most
convenient and easily-managed form in which they can
be grown, is that of a bush or small tree, with a stem of
three to six inches high, and a head composed of a certain
number, say six or eight principal branches, situated at
equal distances, and not nearer to one another at the ex-
tremities than six or eight inches.

These branches are produced by cutting back the young
shoots found on the nursery plant, as recommended for
the gooseberry. They are afterwards annually shortened
to produce lateral branches, when wanted, and fruit spurs.
Care must be taken not to prune too close, as this causes
the buds on the lower parts to make wood instead of fruit
spurs : one third, and in many cases one fourth, will be
quite sufficient.

The Currant as a Pyramid. — The currant is very easily
formed into pretty pyramids. The mode of conducting
them will be similar to that recommended for other trees.

A good strong shoot must first be obtained to com-
mence upon ; this is cut back, and laterals produced as
though it were a yearling cherry-tree. Summer pruning

THE CURRANT. 311

and pinching must be duly put in practice, under any
form, to keep up an equality of growth among the shoots,
and to check misplaced and superfluous ones. This will
obviate a great deal of cutting at the winter or spring
pruning. Mr. Rivers, in his " Miniature Fruit Garden,"
says : "A near neighbor of mine, an ingenious gardener,
attaches much value, and with reason, to his pyramidal
currant trees ; for his table is supplied abundantly with
their fruit till late in autumn. The leading shoots of his
trees are fastened to iron rods ; they form nice pyramids
about five feet high ; and by the clever contrivance of
slipping a bag made of coarse muslin over them as soon
as the fruit is ripe, fastening it securely at the bottom,
wasps, birds, flies, and all the ills that beset ripe currants
are excluded."

The Currant as an Espalier. — It is sometimes desirable,
both to economize space and to retard the period of ripen-
ing, to train currants on a north wall or trellis ; and this
is very easily done with success. We have seen the north
side of a neighbor's garden fence completely covered with
currants without any system whatever being pursued in
laying in the branches. The plants were about five feet
apart, and the branches were fastened to the wall in a sort
of fan form. The proper way to treat the currant as an
espalier is, to produce two strong branches on a stem six
to twelve inches high. These branches are trained out in
a horizontal manner like two arms — one on each side ; and
from the shoots which they will produce, as many as are
to be had at the distance of six inches from one another
are trained in an upright position, as in the grape vine
(fig. 137).

These upright shoots are managed in the same way as
the branches of a bush ; they are annually shortened back
a little to insure a good supply of fruit buds.

The Black Currant produces its best fruit on the wood
of the preceding year, therein differing from the others.

312 THE RASPBERRY.

In pruning it, the young wood must be preserved, and
branches that have borne must bo cut back to produce a
succession of new bearing wood, as in the filbert.

Manuring. — ~No other fruit tree is so patient under bad
treatment as the currant, and yet none yields a more
prompt or abundant reward for kindness. In addition to
the annual pruning described, the bushes should receive a
dressing of old, well-prepared manure, two or three inches
deep, spread all around as far as the roots go, and forked
lightly in. It is a great feeder, and, without these annual
dressings, the soil becomes so poor that the fruit is really
not worth gathering.

PLANTING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE RASPBERRY.

Planting. — The raspberry succeeds well in all good
garden soils in the Northern States, but the foreign varie-
ties (Rnbus Idceus) do not succeed at the South or South-
west. The most advantageous and economical position
for a raspberry bed in the garden is generally in the wall
border, facing north. In this situation the fruit ripens
sufficiently, and the canes are not so liable to suifer from
alternate freezing and thawing in the winter. The young
canes or suckers are shortened full one half, and planted
at the distance of two or three feet. Any flowers that
make their appearance on them the first season should be
removed, in order to turn all the sap to the benefit of the
leaves and new roots, and the production of a young cane
for the next season.

Pruning. — The stem is biennial — that is, the canes are
produced one season and bear fruit the next, and then die.
For example, in fig. 152, A is the old cane that has borne,
and is of no further use. B is the young cane produced
at its base last season. The fruit buds produce small
shoots, a, a, «, thnt bear the fruit. The pruning is very
simple ; it consists merely in cutting away early in the

THE RASPBERRY.

313

spring the old cane that has borne. Some people do this
as 'soon as the fruit is gathered, on the ground that the
young cane is strengthened by so doing ; but this is ques-
tionable. It may be, on the whole, safer to leave it to
finish its natural course, and cut it away at the spring or
winter pruning.

The young cane is shortened to three feet, or three and
a half or four, if it be quite stout and vigorous. When
the plants have been a year or two
in their place, several canes will be
produced from one stool in the same
season; but three or four only are
reserved, and these the strongest.
Each one is pruned or shortened as
above in order to concentrate the
sap on the bearing buds on the
center and lower parts. This not
only increases the size, but im-
proves the quality of the fruit.
When the suckers become very nu-
merous, they enfeeble the plant,
and it soon becomes worthless. All
the weaker superfluous ones should
be carefully removed with a trowel
early in the season, say when they
have attained five or six inches of
growth. In selecting such as are to be reserved, prefer-
ence should be given to those being nearest in the regu-
lar row of plants. Some of the French authors recom-
mend leaving a hole ten or twelve inches deep around
each plant at the time of planting, to be filled up gradu-
ally, three or four inches a year, with fresh earth, to pro-
mote the formation of vigorous radical buds, at the collar
of the root, as recommended for the fig.

Summer Pruning. — The foregoing is designed for the
annual or winter pruning, but if summer pruning is prac-
14

Fig. 152.

The Raspberry. A, the
old cane that has borne
and will be cut away ; .B,
the young cane for next
season, to be shortened at
cross line b ; (7, radical
bud, to produce a cane
next season.

314

THE RASPBERRY.

tised all that will be needed in the autumn is to cut away
the canes that have borne fruit.

In summer pruning, as soon as the young shoots have
grown to a hight of two and a half or three feet, they
should have the ends pinched in. This will soon cause them
to produce laterals or side branches, and these again, as
soon as they have made a growth of one foot, should be
pinched back, and at the same time the shoot from the
top bud of the cane should be shortened. This causes
the plants to become stocky and self-supporting.

Manuring. — A liberal dressing of well-decomposed ma-
nure should be given them every fall, worked carefully
in among the roots with the digging fork. With this
treatment a bed will continue productive for seven years
at least.

Training. — M. Dubreuil describes a very pretty and
simple method of training practised in France, and I had

Fig. 153. — FRENCH MODE OF TRAINING THE RASPBERRY TO STAKES
AND ROPES.

the pleasure of seeing it carried into practice in the Rouen
Garden (fig. 153).

The railing IB is a narrow strip of board, or a small
pole, supported on upright stakes; it is eighteen inches
from the row of plants, and three feet from the ground.
When the young bearing canes are pruned in the spring,
they are bent over and fastened to this rail ; and thus the
young suckers grow up without mixing with the fruit
branches; consequently the fruit ripens better and is
more easily gathered. During the summer, when the

THE RASPBERRY.

315

young suckers destined to bear the year following have
reached the hight of two feet, they are fastened to a
similar rail on the other side of the row, and the same
distance from the line of the ground.

The following is an English mode of training described
in the " London Gardeners' Chronicle." In fig. 154, the
uprights between every two or three plants are iron, and

Fig. 154.— ENGLISH MODE OF TRAINING THE RASPBERRY.

the horizontal lines to which the canes are attached, are
tarred rope.

In fig. 155, the plants are supposed to be placed in
rows four feet apart, and about the same distance from
one another in the row. The number of shoots on each
is regulated during the growing season, no more being

Fig. 155. — ENGLISH MODE OF TRAINING THE RASPBERRY TO STAKES.

allowed to remain than the plant is capable of support-
ing. In most cases six or eight shoots will be sufficient.
Where this method is practised, a row of raspberries in
autumn will have something of the appearance repre-
sented in fig. 155 ; the arched portion, tied to the stake

316 THE RASPBERRY.

in the center, being the canes which bore fruit last year,
and which must be cut down to the bottom, and be re-
placed by the upright shoots of last summer.

In this last arrangement, five or six fruit-bearing canes
are tied together to one stake, and it is impossible that
the fruit can either ripen well or be gathered easily. The
two first are good and simple plans.

Where summer pruning is practised no training will be
needed, but in absence of that operation being performed
we have practised driving stakes at distances of twelve feet
or so along the row, and then simply securing a cord at one
end of the row, pass it along one side, just under the side
branches, giving a tie around each stake, and the same
on the opposite side, thus securing the canes from falling
to the ground, and yet leaving them free and open to air
and sunshine. After fruiting the cord can be taken off
and laid away for another year.

Protection in Winter. — All the foreign, or, as commonly
termed, Antwerp varieties, require winter protection in
the northern sections of the States, and, indeed, they are

Fig. 156. — COVERING RASPBERRIES WITH THE SPADE.

the better, wherever grown, for a slight protection during
the winter months.

In garden culture the canes are bent down and earth
covered over them with a spade to the depth of two to
three inches (fig. 156), the dotted lines being the top of
the covering of earth.

In the field or large plantations, a plow is run along by
the side of the row, and a shallow furrow opened (a, fig.
157) ; then a man or boy follows, and, bending the
canes down into it (#), secures them in place by draw-

THE BLACKBERRY. 317

ing over them a little earth, either with the hand or foot ;
the plow then returns, throwing the furrow over and
upon the plants a depth of one to four inches (see dot-
ted lines in fig. 157). Another way of covering is to
first lay down the canes along the line of row, secur-
ing by a little dirt on their ends, and then turn a fur-
row with the plow towards them on each side. This

Fig. 157.— COVERING RASPBERRIES WITH THE PLOW.

makes the center between each row to act as a drain for
surface water. The canes should be left until the buds
begin to swell in the spring, as, if taken out too early, they
are liable to be killed by frosts. In localities where snow
usually covers the ground during winter, merely laying
the canes upon the ground and covering the ends with a
little earth is sufficient.

PLANTING, PRUNING, AND TRAINING THE BLACKBERRY.

The blackberry requires a deep moist soil, not wet, but
it is not particular whether clay or sand. The canes are
planted at distances of six to eight feet apart, according
to the strength of the soil. Cover the crown of the root
not more than two inches deep, same as with the raspberry.

Prune the cane at planting the same as the raspberry,
and pursue the same system of summer pruning or pinch-
ing, only leaving the main stems from four to six feet
long, and the side branches fourteen to eighteen inches.
Tying the blackberry canes to wires or stakes is an un-
pleasant labor, and we have found that stout stakes along
the rows at distances of sixteen to twenty feet, with a No.
12 wire stretched along each side at three to four feet

318 THE STRAWBERRY.

from the ground, according to the hight of the plants, a
good support and economical in labor-saving. The wire,
at time of pruning away the old bearing canes, may be
removed from one side, and again replaced after the prun-
ing is done. Covering the blackberry for winter protec-
tion is the same as that of the raspberry.

CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT OF THE STRAWBERRY.

The strawberry is not difficult to suit in regard to the
nature of the soil, for every year we see abundant crops
gathered from a variety of soils, differing widely in char-
acter, from a light sand to a heavy clay.

The best soil is a deep, strong, sandy loam, but any soil
suited to the growth of ordinary field or garden crops
may be trusted for successfully growing the strawberry,
This should be broken up and pulverized by spade trench-
ing (page 72} or subsoil plowing (page 71), and enriched
by the admixture of good stable manure to the depth of
full two feet. The quantity of manure will, of course, be
regulated by the condition of the soil. New soils of
good quality, unexhausted by cultivation, will require
very little, just enough to quicken those chemical changes
which it is necessary the elements of fertility should un-
dergo to convert them into a nutritive state. In old,
pretty well-worn soils a coating of three, four, or even
six inches of manure should be spread on the surface be-
fore the trenching or plowing begins, and be regularly
incorporated with the soil during the operation. If this
trenching or plowing can be done in the autumn, all the
better, and the soil should be left as rough as possible, so
that the frost will act upon it efficiently during the win-
ter. Then before the plants are set in the spring, the
ground should be turned over once more so as to loosen
it and incorporate the various parts thoroughly with one
another. The beneficial eftects of manure depend much,

THE STRAWBERRY. 319

in this as in all cases, upon its even distribution in the
soil. Some old gardens become infested with grubs which
live upon the roots of plants and often cut off all crops.
In such cases, a dressing of soot, or fresh lime, or salt, at
the time of trenching or plowing, will have a good effect.

It is almost unnecessary to say that all soils of a wet
nature, whether arising from springs or from being so tena-
cious as to hold rain a long time, should be drained
(page 73).

Attention to the subject of draining cannot be too
strongly urged upon all cultivators, and especially cultiva
tors of fruit, and the strawberry grower should constantly
remember that the certainty, excellence, and profusion of
the crop depend mainly upon the richness, depth, and
thorough drainage of the soil.

Transplanting. — Next to the preparation of the soil an
important item is, when to plant. All seasons, in the hands
of skilful persons, and with care in shading, etc., are suc-
cessful, but the months of April and May in the spring,
September and October in the fall, throughout the North-
ern States, January, February, and March in the South,
are periods when the least care is required to insure the
greatest success.

Fall planting at the North involves necessity of winter
protection, which it is requisite to give in such a manner,
and with such material, that the plants may be prevented
from being thrown out by the frost, and at the same time
not smothered by the mulch of leaves, straw, etc., being
too thick and heavy on their crowns. Early fall planting
almost always insures new roots, as the soil is warm and
the roots form rapidly ; it is also a season when the ground
works finely and the demand for labor on other crops is
reduced. For large plantations, we, however, prefer the
spring, just about the time when the ground is dry and
warm, and the plants are beginning to grow. One plant
in a thousand need not be lost at this time, if the ground

320 THE STRAWBERRY.

has been properly prepared, the plants in good order, and
the work done reasonably well.

The ground being properly prepared and made smooth
with a harrow, the planting should be in straight rows,
using a line, and may be done with a dibble, or by fur-
rowing the line lightly with a shovel, or double mould-
board plow, and then drawing the earth in around the
plant, as it is placed, with the hands. This gives oppor-
tunity for a better spreading of the roots, and in practice
has been found even more rapid than dibbling.

In extensive field culture the system of rows is the
most advantageous, and they should be three and a half
to four feet apart, with plants one foot apart in the row,
to admit of the passage of the horse-hoe or cultivator
between them.

The arrangement of plants in beds is a matter upon which
cultivators differ in opinion and practice. That which we

regard as offering the
greatest convenience in
a garden plantation is
to divide the ground
into beds of four feet
wide, each of which may
Fig. 158.— DIAGRAM OF STRAWBERRY- contain three rows of
BED. plants, the two outside

rows six inches from the edge of the beds (fig. 158).
The plants may stand twelve inches apart in the rows,
or in the case of very strong growing sorts, such as Trol-
lope's Victoria and some other English varieties, eighteen
inches apart. Thus a bed twenty feet long and four feet
wide will contain forty to sixty plants.

If the plantation contains several of these beds they
should be separated by walks or alleys of two feet in
width.

These walks would enable the gardener to perform all
the labor the plants would require, and gather the fruit

/2/T?

THE STRAWBERRY. 321

without stepping on the beds, which is a consideration of
some importance. Next to this arrangement I would
recommend rows two feet apart, with the plants twelve
to eighteen inches apart in the rows (fig. 159). In this
case the space between »/*m« * • * • • * •am*
the rows must be used as 5 ^

a path in gathering the •«.», •••••
fruit and performing the !£ !§

details of culture.

d T, TIT 9I8IH* *••••• HSU!*

Small garden-beds may Fig m_DIAGRAM OF FIELD.
be made at any time when PLANTING.

the ground is not frozen. The ground should be raked off
smooth and even, and the beds or plots and intervening
walks marked by the line and a measure. When this is
done, then stretch the line where it is intended to put a
row of plants, mark off the place for each plant by a
measure, and then with a dibble, such as that described on
page 147, set the plants, pressing the earth firmly around
each with the hand. When the rows are close the plants
should be put in quincunx order. This increases the
space around each plant.

In a dry time the plants should be well watered before
they are taken up, and the ground well watered before
they are planted ; then they must be protected from the
hot mid-day sun until they have taken root.

In planting spread out the roots and cover them with
soil, but avoid covering the crown with earth.

The plants should invariably be of one season's growth,
from the seed or runner, and well rooted. Where only a
few plants are needed, those nearest the parent plant
should be selected, as they possess a greater degree of vigor.

They should always be taken up in a moist time if pos-
sible, and before planting the roots should be dressed by
cutting off the extremities, and the older, imperfect, or
bruised foliage should also be pruned off; these operations
facilitate the process of re-rooting. We find it very
14*

322 THE STRAWBERRY.

good to dip the roots, after being dressed, in mud made
of loamy soil and old manure well mixed with water,
about as thick as common paint.

In compact soil a little sand about each plant, thrown
into the bottom of the hole made by the dibble, will
hasten the growth of young roots materially. No fresh
manure should be used in any case whatever.

It is essential in the culture, in order to produce good
crops, that the runners or new forming plants be kept
from growing just the same as if they were weeds. Early
in the spring, if the plants have been mulched, they
should be gone over with a rake, and the mulch all re-
moved from the crown or center, and as soon as the
ground is in condition to work, all between the rows and
among the plants should be spaded or plowed as deeply
as possible. All weeds should 'be kept down, and just
before the fruit commences to ripen a layer of straw or
fresh-mown grass should be placed along just under the
foliage and around the plants, for the purpose of keeping
the fruit clean.

After the crop has matured, if plants are wanted, the
ground should be again dug or plowed and the mulch re-
moved, when an abundance of new plants from runners
will soon form. If in the garden, and another year's crop
is to be provided for, then a light dressing of well-rotted
manure should be dug in, and during the remainder of the
season all runners prevented from growing and weeds
kept down.

For field crops, if the plantation has borne but one year,
then go through between the rows and plow deep, leaving
only the hills or narrow rows ; smooth down with the
one-horse harrow and cultivator, and then from time to
time go through with the cultivator, to keep down all
weeds and runners. If the plantation has borne two crops,
then give a dressing of well-rotted manure along between
the rows, plow deep, harrow down smooth, and let the

FRUIT TREES. 323

runners or new plants form along into it, being careful to
keep down weeds.

The new plants will all be formed by September, when
the plow may again be used and the rows of old plants
turned under, leaving the new plants for the next crop.
The most successful growers practise taking but one crop
from a plantation. In so doing, they plant in spring, per-
mit the runners to grow as they please, but keep down
all weeds, and the ground thoroughly cultivated. The
crop is made the second season, and then the plantation
destroyed.

SUNDRY OPERATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE CULTURE
OF FRUIT TREES.

1st. The Annual Cultivation of the Soil. — The soil
around fruit trees should, especially in the garden, be kept
in a clean, friable condition by the frequent use of the hoe
and the spade ; but in all these operations the roots must
not be injured. The forked spade (see Implements) is the
best for operating about the roots.

2d. Manuring. — The very common practice in regard
to the use of manure, is to apply none for several years,
until the trees have begun to show signs of feebleness and
exhaustion, when large quantities are applied, thus induc-
ing a rank, plethoric growth, that can scarcely fail to be
seized with diseases. The proper way is to apply a small
dressing of well-decomposed material, like some of the
composts recommended, every autumn. This should be
forked in around the extremities of the roots. There may
be rich soils where this will be unnecessary ; but most
ordinary garden soils require it.

3d. Mulching. — This should be a universal practice in
our dry and warm summer climate, not only with newly-
planted trees, but all, and especially dwarfs in the garden
whose roots are near the surface. Three or four inches

324 FRUIT TUBES.

deep of half-decayed stable manure or litter makes a
good mulching. It should be applied in May, and remain
all summer. After the fall dressing a mulching for the
winter will protect the roots and base of the tree from
injury; it should be so well decayed as not to attract
vermin.

4th. Watering. — In dry times, and especially in light,
dry soils, fruit trees will derive vast benefits from a liberal
syringing overhead in the evening, with a hand or garden
syringe (see Implements). A reservoir in the garden is
therefore desirable, and at a point easy of access from
all the quarters of the garden. This watering refreshes
the trees, drives away insects, mildew, etc., and washes off
dust and filth that may accumulate on the foliage and fill
up the pores. It is more necessary in city and village
than in country gardens.

Protecting Trees against Extremes of Temperature. —
Where the trunk or large branches are liable to injury
from sudden changes of temperature in the winter, or
from a powerful sun in summer, they may be covered
thinly, with long rye straw, fastened on with willows.
The trunk alone is more easily protected by means of
two boards nailed together, forming an angle for the tree.
This is placed on the south side, the injury being induced
chiefly by the sun at both seasons.

Newly-transplanted trees, especially if they have tall
trunks, and are somewhat injured before planting, may be
saved by wrapping them lightly with straw ; a straw rope
rolled around answers the purpose. A little damp moss
is still better ; an occasional watering will keep it cool
and moist, and enable the sap to flow under the bark.

Renovating pyramidal trees of Apples and Pears that
have become enfeebled or unproductive by age, bad soil,
bearing, or bad pruning. — There are two methods of doing
this successfully. One is, to cut back all parts of the tree.
The stem may be cut back half its length, the lateral

CULTURE OF FRUIT TREES. 325

branches at the base to within twelve or fifteen inches of
the stem, and shorter as they advance upwards, so that
those at the top will be cut to four or six inches. This
will preserve the pyramidal form.

It may appear unnecessary to cut back the stem, but
we find when this is not done it is almost impossible to
secure an equal growth between the upper and lower
parts, because the wood at the top is young, and attracts
the sap much more than the wood at the base of the old
branches below. For a few years after this renewal the
young wood at the top must be kept very closely pruned,
to prevent it from absorbing more than its due proportion
of the sap. When growth commences on trees thus cut
back, a large number of shoots will be produced. Amongst
those on the stem, a strong and well-placed one must be
selected for a leader, and its growth favored by checking
those around it. Leaders for each of the lateral branches
must be selected and encouraged in the same way. The
future management will be similar to that described for
the formation of young trees. We have succeeded well
with a large number of trees thus treated. Where the
soil is defective, it must be improved and renewed with
fresh soil and composts, so that abundant nutriment shall
be given to the new growth.

The second method of renewal referred to is, that of cut-
ting back as already described, and grafting each branch.

The process of regrafting old orchards of standard
apple-trees, it is well known, renews their vigor, and re-
places old, worn-out, and deformed branches with young
and vigorous ones, giving to the entire head a healthy and
youthful appearance. In many cases this grafting will
be much more successful than simply cutting back, for the
cions, being furnished with young and active buds that
develop leaves at once, attract the sap from the roots,
place it in contact with the atmosphere, and carry on the
formative process in all parts of the tree with less inter-

326 CULTURE OF FKUIT TREES.

ruption and greater activity than where reliance is placed
upon the production of new shoots on the old wood ; for
this must be effected by awakening dormant buds, which
in many cases takes place slowly and with more or less
difficulty.

IV.

SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS— GATHERING AND

PRESERVING FRUITS— DISEASES-INSECTS

—IMPLEMENTS IN COMMON USE.

CHAPTER I.

ABRIDGED DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

THE accumulation of varieties of fruits within the last
twenty years has been so great, that anything like a com-
plete description or account of them all, would in itself ex-
ceed the bounds of a moderate-sized volume. Taken al-
together, there are perhaps at this moment no fewer than
four thousand different varieties under cultivation. To
trace out the history, the peculiar characters and merits
of these, must be the work of the pomologist, and forms
no part in the design of this treatise. In making the fol-
lowing selections, and in describing them, pomological
system and minuteness have not been deemed essential,
nor would they be practicable within the necessary limits.

The main object aimed at is, to bring to the notice of
cultivators the best varieties, those which ample experi-
ence has proved to be really valuable, or which upon a
partial trial give strong indications of becoming so.
Nothing is more embarrassing to the inexperienced culti-
vator than long lists ; and many will no doubt be inclined
to think that a large number of the following varieties
might very well be dispensed with. But it must be re-
membered that our country, even the great fruit-growing
regions of it, possess different climates, that there are
various qualities of soils, various tastes and circumstances
of individuals, to be provided for. A dozen or twenty
sorts of apples or pears may be as many as one person

330 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

may require ; but it does not follow that these varieties
only are to be cultivated, for it is very probable that
another individual, residing even in the same State, would
make a selection entirely different. New York, Massa-
chusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and
other States, have all varieties of their own • and by the
time each has made a selection, our one hundred and fifty
varieties will be appropriated, and a deficiency still exist
in all probability. We are not of those who cry out
against new varieties. On the contrary, we look upon
every one of real excellence as an additional blessing to
the fruit growers and to society, for which they should be
duly thankful. The only thing to be observed in regard
to them is, that before entering into general cultivation
they should be fuirly and carefully tested under various
circumstances. Some well-meaning persons make a great
outcry against nurserymen and others, whose business it
is to experiment, for extending their lists or noticing new
varieties, and against horticultural societies for offering
premiums for large collections. If such a spirit had pre-
vailed, what would our fruits have been to-day ?

It is by no means presumed that the following lists are
perfect, even as far as they go. No individual possesses
such a thorough knowledge of the various soils and cli-
mates of our country, or of the varieties of fruits best
adapted to them, as to enable him to recommend with in-
fallible correctness special lists for all localities.

In attempting this, reliance must be placed upon the
experience and reports of others, and these are always
liable to be biased by tastes or prejudices. These things
have been kept in view, and wherever recommendations
are made beyond our own knowledge and experience,
they are based upon the most reliable authority, and it is
hoped will not be found wholly unserviceable to those
especially who have neither had experience nor access to
sources of extensive and minute information. Those who

APPLES. 331

are not satisfied with the abridged descriptions are re-
ferred to works more strictly pomological.

The arrangement of varieties under the heads of Sum-
mer, Autumnfaud Winter, is for the purpose of assisting
the reader in selecting varieties ripening at particular sea-
sons, while the terms early or late summer, etc., in place
of the month, is because of its better application to the
various States and sections of States. For instance, the
Early Harvest ripens at the South early in June, and at
the North early in July, but in each section it is classed
as ripening in early summer.

Synonyms have been omitted in most cases, because of
the want of room, and because the work is intended as a
guide to the planter, rather than a work on pomology.
When inserted they are in SMALL CAPITALS. The name
given to each fruit is the recognized name of the Amer-
ican Pomological Society so far as recorded in their Cat-
alogue.

FIRST DIVISION.— KERNEL FRUIT— APPLES, PEARS,
AND QUINCES.

SECTION 1. — SELECT APPLES.
CLASS I. SUMMER APPLES.

American Summer Pearmain. — Medium size, oblong ;

skin smooth, red and yellow ; flesh tender, juicy, rich, sub-
acid. — Late Summer. Tree a moderately vigorous grow-
er, upright ; bears early. A valuable sort for family use ;
not profitable in orchards.

Benoni* — Origin Massachusetts. Medium size, roundish
oblate ; yellow, shaded and striped with red. Stem short,
calyx closed ; flesh yellow, juicy, tender, sub-acid. — Mid-
Summer. Tree a vigorous upright grower, hardy and pro-
ductive. A valuable variety for market or table use.

332 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Carolina Red June. — Origin South. Medium or below
in size, oval or conic ; purplish red, on yellow ground ; stem
variable, calyx closed ; flesh tender, juicy, brisk sub-acid.
— Early Summer. Tree a vigorous, upright grower, good
bearer ; valuable as an orchard sort South and West.
Successful in New York.

Carolina Watson, — Large, roundish, flattened ; green-
ish, shaded and striped with red; flesh white, coarse, mild
sub-acid. — Mid-Summer. A Southern variety not valued
at the North.

Early Harvest. — Origin American. Medium size, round-
ish oblate ; skin smooth, light pale yellow ; stem medium ;
flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sub-acid. — Early Summer.
Tree a moderate grower, erect, spreading as it grows old,
productive. A valuable variety for market or table use
in almost every section.

Early Joe, — Origin New York. Small size, oblate;
yellowish, covered, striped, and shaded with red; flesh
tender, juicy, rich, sprightly vinous sub-acid. — Mid-Sum-
mer. Tree a slow, upright grower, very productive; val-
uable for the garden.

Early Pennock , — Origin American. Large size, round-
ish, ribbed ; yellow, shaded with red ; flesh whitish, rather
coarse, sub-acid. — Late Summer. Tree a strong grower,
productive; valued as a market sort in parts of Ohio
especially.

Early Red Margaret, — Origin foreign. Medium or
below in size, roundish ovate; skin yellowish, striped and
marbied with dull red; flesh white, tender, crisp, sub-acid,
agreeable. — Early Summer. Tree a moderate grower and
bearer.

Early Strawberry (RED JUNEATING of some). — Origin
New York. Small, roundish, slightly conical ; skin smooth,
yellowish, striped, shaded, and mostly covered with red ;
flesh white, tinged with red next the skin, tender, sprightly,

APPLES. 333

pleasantly sub-acid and perfumed ; very good. — Middle
to late Summer. Tree a moderate upright grower, an
abundant bearer, ripening its fruit along evenly for a
month or more ; valuable for orchard or garden.

Golden Sweet, — Origin Connecticut. Medium or above,
roundish, pale yellow ; flesh yellowish, tender, sweet, rich.
— Mid-Summer. Tree a strong grower, spreading, a good
bearer ; valuable for cooking, market, or stock.

Hightop Sweet (SWEET JUNE). — Origin Massachusetts.
Medium or below in size, roundish, light yellow ; flesh
yellowish, sweet, pleasant, very good. — Mid-Summer.
Tree vigorous, upright, productive ; valued for the mar-
ket orchard.

Large Yellow Bough (EARLY SWEET BOUGH). — Origin
American. Large, oblong, ovate ; skin smooth, greenish
yellow ; flesh white, tender, sprightly, rich, sweet. — Early
to mid Summer. Tree moderately vigorous, compact,
good bearer ; one of the best for table or market.

Primate, — Probably American. Medium, roundish ob-
late ; greenish white, blush cheek in the sun ; flesh white,
very tender, sprightly, mild sub-acid. — Late Summer.
Tree a vigorous grower, upright, very productive ; an ex-
cellent dessert sort ; too tender for. distant market.

Red Astrachan. — Origin Russian. Large, roundish,
nearly covered with deep crimson and a thick bloom;
flesh tender, juicy, rich acid. — Mid-Summer. Tree vig-
orous, strong grower, upright, spreading, good bearer;
well known as one of the most profitable of orchard sorts,
and valuable for the dessert when gathered at the right
time. Probably the most profitable early summer apple
in every part of our country from Maine to California.

Summer Hagloe, — Origin American. Medium to large,
roundish oblate ; yellow, striped and splashed with red,
slight bloom ; flesh white, tender, juicy, sub-acid. — Lafe
Summer. Tree a vigorous, stocky, short-jointed grower,

334 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

making a handsome round head, productive. An old
sort, but comparatively little known ; valuable for orchard
or garden.

Summer Queen, — Origin New York. Large, conical ;
striped and shaded with red ; flesh aromatic, whitish yel-
low, rich and agreeable. — Late Summer. Tree vigorous,
spreading, productive ; a popular and successful market
sort.

Summer Rose (LIPPINCOTT'S EARLY, etc.). — Origin
New Jersey. Medium or below in size, roundish, smooth ;
yellow, streaked and blotched with red ; flesh tender,
juicy, rich, delicious, spicy sub-acid. — Middle to late
Summer. Tree moderately vigorous, hardy ; an early and
productive bearer, highly valued as a dessert fruit.

Summer Sweet Paradise. — Origin Pennsylvania. Large,

.round, slightly oblate ; greenisli yellow ; flesh very tender,

juicy, crisp, rich aromatic sweet. — Late Summer. Tree

vigorous, spreading, productive ; a valuable dessert sort,

too tender for market.

Tetofsky, — Origin Russia. Medium, oblate, nearly
round; yellowish, striped and shaded with red, thick
whitish bloom; flesh white, juicy, sprightly acid, fragrant.
— Early Summer. Tree vigorous, upright, with large
foliage, which most Russian varieties seem to have ; very
hardy ; an early and abundant bearer, valued as an
orchard sort.

Townsend (HOCKING, etc.). — Origin Pennsylvania.
Medium, oblate ; pale yellow, striped with red, thin bloom ;
flesh white, tender, mild, agreeable sub-acid. — Late Sum-
mer. Tree vigorous, upright grower, good bearer ; an
old sort, valued for market in some localities.

Trenton Early, — Origin American. Medium or above,
irregular, slightly ribbed ; yellowish and green ; flesh
light, tender, pleasant sub-acid. — Middle to late Summer.
Tree moderately vigorous, very productive.

APPLES. 335

William's Favorite (WILLIAM'S RED, etc.). — Origin
Massachusetts. Medium, roundish oblong ; light and dark
red ; flesh yellowish white, mild sub-acid. — Middle to
late Summer. Tree a moderately vigorous upright grow-
er, good bearer ; a beautiful and popular market sort.

CLASS II. AUTUMN APPLES.

Alexander. — Origin Russian. Large or very large,
conical ; yellow, mostly shaded with red, light bloom ;
flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, pleasant sub-acid. —
Middle to late Autumn. A superb fruit. Tree a vigor-
ous spreading grower, and when grown as a dwarf, pro-
ducing fruit of the largest size and greatest beauty.

Autumn Sweet Bough (FALL BOUGH, etc.). — Origin
Pennsylvania. Medium, conical ; pale yellow ; flesh white,
very tender, sweet, vinous. — Early Autumn. Tree vig-
orous, upright, productive; a highly, esteemed dessert
variety.

Autumn Swaar (SWEET SWAAE, etc.). — Origin New
York. Medium or above, roundish oblate ; yellow, with
blush in sun ; flesh yellowish, tender, moderately juicy,
rich, sweet. — Early Autumn. Tree vigorous, spreading,
productive ; highly esteemed for orchard and garden.

Beauty of Kent. — A well-known popular English vari-
ety. Large to very large, roundish ; greenish yellow, with
broken stripes of red ; stem short, calyx small; flesh juicy,
crisp, tender, sub-acid. — Late Autumn and early Winter.
Tree very vigorous, upright, and moderately productive ;
a showy fruit, and highly valued for cooking.

Campfield (NEWARK SWEETING). — Origin New Jersey.
Medium, roundish oblate ; greenish yellow, with shades and
stripes of red ; flesh white, dry, firm, rich, sweet. — Late
Autumn, but will often keep until Spring. Tree a mod-
erate, healthy grower, spreading, very productive ; this is

336 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

a celebrated cider apple in New Jersey, and is valued for
baking and stock feeding.

Carter's Blue,— Origin Alabama. Large, roundish,
flattened ; greenish, mostly covered with dull red and a
blue bloom; flesh yellowish white, sugary, rich, aromatic.
— Early Autumn. Tree a fine upright grower and an
early bearer ; popular in some parts of the South.

ChenangO Strawberry (SHERWOOD'S FAVORITE, etc.).
— Origin N"ew York. Medium, oblong, conic ; shaded,
splashed, and mottled with crimson red and white ; flesh
white, tender, juicy, mild sub-acid. — Early Autumn. Tree
vigorous, spreading ; wherever grown this is highly es-
teemed ns a table fruit of fair quality and great beauty.

Cornell's Fancy, — Origin Pennsylvania, Medium, ob-
long, conical ; yellow, shaded with crimson red ; flesh white,
tender, crisp, juicy, pleasant sub-acid. Tree vigorous and
productive.

Duchess Of Olden burgh, — Origin Russian. Medium to
large, roundish ; streaked and shaded red on yellow ; flesh
white, juicy, sprightly, sharp sub-acid. — Early Autumn.
Tree vigorous, upright, spreading, an early and abundant
bearer, and very hardy. This variety is probably more
generally cultivated West and North-west than any other.
Everywhere it succeeds and proves profitable as an orch-
ard variety.

Dyer (POMME ROYALE, GOLDEN SPICE, etc.). — Origin
foreign. Medium size, roundish ; greenish yellow, with
blush in sun; flesh white, very tender, juicy, sprightly
aromatic, mild sub-acid. — Mid-Autumn. Tree a moderate
grower, productive ; this is one of the best of dessert
apples, but too tender and not showy enough for shipment
to distant markets.

Fall Pippin. — Supposed American. Large to very
large, roundish, flattened at ends ; yellowish ; flesh white,
tender, rich, aromatic, sub-acid. — Middle to late Autumn.

APPLES. 337

Tree vigorous, upright, spreading. The Fall Pippin, in
sections where there are no great extremes of tempera-
ture, is one of the most valuable varieties, either for table
or market ; popular over a great extent of country.

Fall Wine (Oino WIXE, etc.). — Origin American.
Medium or above in siza, roundish oblate ; light ground
mostly covered with red ; flesh yellowish white, tender,
juicy, rich, aromatic, mild sub-acid. — Mid-Autumn. Tree
a slender but healthy grower, moderate annual bearer.
This variety fails in most sections East, but in the new,
rich soils of the West it is one of the best, and the fruit
valuable for dessert or market.

Garden Royal* — Origin Massachusetts. Medium or
below in size, roundish oblong ; greenish yellow, striped
and splashed with red and russet ; flesh yellowish, very
tender, juicy, rich, mild aromatic sub-acid. — Early Au-
tumn. Tree moderately vigorous, upright, very produc-
tive. This is perhaps, in quality, the best apple grown,
and desirable for the amateur, but not profitable as an
orchard variety.

Gravenstein. — Origin German. Large, roundish, flat-
tened ; yellow, shaded and marbled with red ; flesh tender,
crisp, with a peculiar high, aromatic flavor. — Early Au-
tumn, but sometimes keeps to mid-winter. Tree vigor-
ous, spreading, and very productive ; it is one of the most
profitable sorts either for orchard or garden.

Hawthorndeu.— Origin Scotch. Above medium, round-
ish, slightly oblate ; light yellow, with blush in sun ; flesh
white, juicy, sharp sub-acid. — Early Autumn. Tree vig-
orous but small, upright, spreading, very productive and
hardy ; a valuable sort for cooking and drying, and prof-
itable for market.

Jefferis. — Origin Pennsylvania. Medium, roundish ; yel-
low, shaded and splashed with red ; flesh white, tender,
15

338 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

juicy, rich, mild sub-acid. — Early Autumn. Tree a mod-
erate, healthy grower, productive.

Jersey Sweet, — Origin unknown. Medium size, round-
ish, ovate ; greenish yellow, washed and streaked with red5
and often covered with stripes of pale and dark red ; flesh
white, juicy, tender, sprightly, sweet. — Early Autumn.
Tree moderately vigorous, very productive ; highly valued
for dessert, cooking, stock, or market.

Keswick Codlin, — Origin English. Above medium in
size, rather conical ; greenish yellow, with a faint blush in
sun; flesh yellowish white,- juicy, pleasant sub-acid. —
Early Autumn. Tree vigorous, a very early and abun-
dant bearer; one of the most profitable sorts for cooking
or market.

Late Strawberry (AUTUMN STRAWBERRY). — Origin
New York. Medium size, roundish, slightly conic ; flesh
yellowish white, tender, juicy, sub-acid. — Late Autumn.
Tree vigorous, upright, spreading, an early and abundant
bearer.

Lowell (QUEEN ANNE, TALLOW PIPPIN, etc.). — -Origin
unknown. Large, roundish, oval or conic ; waxen yellow,
oily ; flesh yellowish white ; brisk, rich sub-acid. — Mid-
Autumn. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive. A val-
uable variety for either garden or orchard, a fine dessert
apple and a showy market fruit.

Lyman's Pumpkin Sweet (PUMPKIN SWEET, VERMONT
PUMPKIN SWEET, etc.). — Origin probably Connecticut.
Large to very large, roundish ; green, with whitish streaks
and white dots ; flesh white, very sweet. — Early to late
Autumn. Tree very vigorous, upright, spreading, valued
for baking, stock, or market.

Maiden's Blush, — Origin New- Jersey. Medium size,
roundish oblate ; pale lemon yellow, with a bright crimson
cheek next the sun ; flesh white, tender, sprightly, brisk
sub-acid. — Early and mid Autumn. Tree a fine grower

APPLES. 339

with a spreading head, an early and abundant bearer. A
profitable orchard sort, valued for table, cooking, or market.

Mangum (FALL CHEESE OF VIRGINIA, etc.).— Medium,
flattened, slightly conic ; yellowish, mostly covered and
striped with red ; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, mild sub-
acid. — Late Autumn. Tree a healthy, good grower, pro-
ductive. This is one of the best of Southern apples, lias
a dozen or more synonyms, and is widely grown South
and South-west.

Ohio Nonpareil (MYER'S NONPAREIL). — Medium to
large, roundish oblate; yellow, shaded, marbled, and
splashed with shades of red ; flesh yellowish white, fine-
grained, tender, juicy, rich aromatic sub-acid. — Late Au-
tumn. Tree vigorous, with stout straight shoots, making
a regular, spreading, open head, productive ; valuable for
table or market.

Porter. — Origin Massachusetts. Above medium size,
oblong, narrowing to the eye ; bright yellow, with blush in
the sun ; flesh fine-grained, crisp, firm yet tender, spright-
ly aromatic sub-acid. — Early Autumn. Tree a moderate
grower, forming a low, round, spreading head, productive.
Highly esteemed for table or market, and succeeding in
all good, rich soils.

Richard's Graft (RED SPITZENBURGH, etc.). — Origin
New York. Medium, roundish, flattened; yellow, nearly
covered with shades of red; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy,
aromatic sub-acid. — Early Autumn.

Rome Beauty* — Origin Ohio. Large to very large,
roundish ; yellow shaded and striped with red ; flesh yel-
lowish, tender, juicy, sub-acid. — Mid- Autumn, Tree a
moderate grower, late bloomer, productive.

St, Lawrence. — Supposed origin Canadian. Large,
oblate ; yellowish, striped and splashed with deep red ; flesh
white, slightly stained with red, juicy, tender, vinous sub-
acid, — Early Autumn. Tree vigorous, upright, productive.

340 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Sops Of Wine (HOMINY, etc.). — Origin foreign. Me-
dium, roundish ; yellow and red, splashed and shaded with
deep red ; flesh white, often stained, not very juicy, pleas-
ant sub-acid. — Early Autumn.

Washington Strawberry. — Origin New York. Large,
roundish, conical ; yellow, shaded, splashed, and mottled
with rich red;*flesh yellowish, crisp, tender, juicy, brisk
sub-acid. — Early to mid Autumn. Tree vigorous, upright,
spreading, an early and abundant bearer. A fine market
sort.

CLASS III. WINTER APPLES.

American Golden Rnsset (BULLOCK'S PIPPIN, LITTLE
PEARMAIN, etc.). — Below medium size, roundish, ovate ;
dull yellow, marbled with thin russet ; flesh yellowish,
very tender, juicy, rich, spicy. — Early to mid Winter.
Tree a moderate upright grower and good bearer ; valued
for table or market, for West and South.

American Golden Pippin (GOLDEN PIPPIN OF WEST-
CHESTER COUNTY). — Medium to large, roundish, slightly
flattened ; yellow, with a brownish blush in sun ; flesh yel-
lowish, juicy, aromatic sub-acid. — Early Winter. Tree a
strong grower, making a spreading head ; not an early,
but abundant bearer.

Baldwin (STEELE'S RED WINTER, etc.). — Origin Mas-
sachusetts. Large, roundish, narrowing to the eye ; yel-
low ground, nearly covered with rich, bright red ; flesh
yellowish Avhite, crisp, juicy, pleasant sub-acid. — Early to
late Winter. Tree very vigorous, upright, spreading, an
early and abundant bearer. In many sections of New
England, New York, Ontario, and Michigan this is one
of the most popular and profitable sorts for either table
or market. In the South and South-west it matures with
the late autumn varieties.

APPLES. C41

Baltimore (CABLE'S GILLIFLOWER, etc.). — Origin un-
known. Medium, roundish, conical, regular ; pale yellow,
mostly covered with shades of dull, purplish red ; flesh
whitish, tender, juicy, mild sub-acid. — Early to late Win-
ter. Tree moderately vigorous, making a round, rather
drooping head, very productive, and valuable for table or
market.

Bailey's Sweet, — Supposed origin New York. Large,
roundish conical, slightly oblong ; yellow, mostly covered,
shaded, and obscurely striped with red ; flesh white, ten-
der, very sweet. — Early to mid Winter. Tree vigorous,
uprigh^, spreading, productive ; valued for table use or
near market, too tender for shipping.

Belmont (GATE, etc.). — Origin Pennsylvania. Medium
to large, roundish ; light waxen yellow, with vermilion-
spotted cheek in sun ; flesh yellowish white, very tender,
juicy, mild, agreeable. — Early to mid Winter. Tree mod-
erately vigorous, productive. A beautiful dessert variety,
fine in Northern Ohio and Michigan and New York,
but variable South and West.

Ben Davis (NEW YORK PIPPIN, etc.). — Supposed
American. Medium to large, roundish, conical; yellow,
mostly overspread, splashed, and shaded with red ; flesh
white, tender, juicy, sub-acid. — Early to late Winter.
Tree hardy, vigorous, upright, spreading, productive,
blooms late; popular as a market variety at the West
and South-west.

Bentley's Sweet. — Supposed origin Virginia. Medium,
roundish, flattened at the ends ; yellowish green, shaded
with pale red ; flesh whitish, firm, juicy, sweet. — Late
Winter. Tree moderately vigorous, a good bearer; es-
teemed in rich soils of the South-west.

Bethlehemite* — Supposed origin Ohio. Medium or
above, oblate, roundish; yellow, striped, shaded, and
splashed with red ; flesh white, firm, crisp, juicy, rich,

342 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

mild, aromatic sub-acid.— Early to late Winter. Tree a
strong, stocky, upright grower, a productive bearer ; where
known it is highly valued for all purposes.

Bonum (MAGNUM BONUM). — Origin North Carolina.
Medium, oblate ; yellow, mostly covered with crimson and
dark red; flesh white, often stained red next the skin,
tender, juicy, rich, mild sub-acid. — Early Winter. Tree
vigorous, upright, spreading, an early and abundant
bearer.

Broadwell. — Origin Ohio. Medium, oblate, conic ; yel-
low, with dull blush and carmine spots in sun ; flesh whitish,
firm, juicy, rich, sweet. — Early Winter. Tree vigorous,
quite spreading, productive ; a valuable apple for table or
cooking.

Buckingham (EQUINETELY, EALL QUEEN, etc.). — Origin
unknown. Medium to large size, oblate, slightly conic ;
greenish yellow, mostly covered with rich red ; flesh yel-
lowish, coarse, breaking, juicy, sub-acid. — Early Winter.
Tree moderately vigorous, hardy, and productive. This
variety is widely grown in the South and South-west, and
is popular for market or table;. it has over twenty syn-
onyms.

Canada Reinette (REIXETTE CANADA, etc.). — Origin un-
certain, probably foreign. Large to very large, oblate,
conical ; greenish yellow ; flesh rather firm, juicy, lively
sub-acid. — Late Winter. Tree vigorous, with an open,
spreading head, very productive ; a popular variety, suc-
cessful in most localities.

Cannon Pearmain. — Origin American. Medium size,
roundish, conic ; yellow, mostly covered with two shades
of red ; flesh yellow, firm, crisp, rich, brisk sub-acid. — Mid-
Winter. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive ; esteemed
where known South and West.

Cogswell. — Origin Connecticut. Above medium, round-
ish, oblate; red on yellow ground; flesh yellowish white,

APPLES. 343

rather firm, juicy, aromatic sub-acid. — Early to late Winter.
Tree a hardy, vigorous, upright grower, and good bearer ;
extremely valuable for orchard or garden.

Cooper's Market (REDLING). — Origin probably New
Jersey. Medium, oblate, conic ; yellow, shaded and striped
with red ; flesh white, tender, brisk sub-acid. — Late Win-
ter. A good keeper. Tree hardy, vigorous, upright,
productive ; considerably grown in Western New York.

Cllllasaga. — Origin North Carolina. Medium to large,
roundish ; yellowish, shaded and striped with dark red ;
flesh yellowish, firm, moderately juicy, mild sub-acid. —
Early to late Winter. Tree a good grower and pro-
ductive.

Dominc (ENGLISH RED STREAK, etc.). — Origin uncer-
tain. Medium size, oblate ; greenish yellow, with stripes
and splashes of red in sun ; flesh white, tender, juicy,
sprightly, pleasant sub-acid. — Early and mid Winter.
Tree rapid, vigorous grower, and a very early and abund-
ant bearer. It is a popular and profitable orchard sort in
most localities.

Dutch Mignonne* — Origin Holland. Medium size,
roundish, oblate ; yellow, shaded, striped, and splashed
with red; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, slightly sub-acid.
— Early to late Winter. Tree moderately vigorous, up-
right, spreading, hardy and very productive.

English Russet (POUGHKEEPSIE RUSSET). — Origin un-
known. Medium size, roundish, slightly conical ; green-
ish yellow, mostly covered with russet ; flesh yellowish
white, pleasant, mild sub-acid. — Late Winter. Tree a
moderate, erect grower, forming a straight, upright, round
head, very productive ; a profitable variety.

Esopus Spitzenburgh, — Origin New York. Size,
above medium to large, oblong, roundish ; yellow, mostly
covered with rich red ; flesh yellow, crisp, juicy, rich,
brisk aromatic flavor. — Mid to late Winter. Tree a

244

PRUNING.

" Take young trees, one year from the graft or bud,
healthy and vigorous, having single stems ; plant about
eighteen inches apart, and incline one from the other,
at an angle of about 60°.

" The second pruning con-
sists in applying to each of
the lateral branches the care
necessary to transform them
into fruit-spurs, and*to cut
back one-third the new terminal shoot. The summer
treatment will be like that of the preceding.

u At the third pruning, the young stem should ordina-
rily attain two- thirds its entire length, when it should
be brought down to an angle of 45° with the surface of the
ground ; and the terminal shoot and laterals are subjected
to the same operations as in previous seasons. If these

Fig. 117. — OBLIQUE CORDON
PEAK — FIRST TEAR.

trees had been brought down at first to an angle of 45°, it

CORDON TRAINING.

245

•would have promoted the growth of strong superfluous
shoots at the base, to the detriment of the terminal shoot.

" The trees being planted about eighteen inches apart,
it results that the espalier, when completCj is composed of
branches, lying parallel, with a space of about a foot be-
tween them, as in fig. 119.

" The espaliers, trained in this form, can be completed
in five years, whereas, by other methods, it would require
ten or twelve.

" They may begin to fruit the fourth year, and be in full
bearing the sixth, while twenty years would be required
by the other methods.

Fig. 118. — OBLIQUE COB-
DON PEAR — SECOND
YEAR.

346 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

tiful and delicious dessert apple, and a profitable market
sort. Commands $10 to $20 per bbl.

Lady's Sweet. — Origin New York. Large, roundish ;
yellowish green, nearly covered with red ; flesh tender,
juicy, crisp, sprightly, agreeable, sweet. — Late Winter.
Tree a thrifty but not strong grower, an early and
abundant bearer ; valued as a dessert sort and keeper.

Law?er. — Large, roundish, flattened ; dark clear red ;
flesh white, firm, sprightly, aromatic, mild sub-acid. —
Late Winter. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive. A
new promising variety, recently introduced from Missouri.

Limber Twig. — Origin North Carolina. Medium or
above in size, roundish; greenish yellow, shaded with
dull red ; flesh not very tender, juicy, brisk sub-acid. — Late
Winter. Tree vigorous, hardy, productive. A popular
market variety South and West.

Melon. — Origin New York. Medium or above in size,
roundish, oblate ; pale yellow, mostly covered with red,
and traces of russet; flesh white, tender, juicy, vinous
sub-acid. — Mid-Winter. Tree a slow grower, making a
round, small head, good bearer.

Menage re. — Of European origin. Very large and
beautiful, much flattened ; pale yellow, sometimes blush,
red in sun ; flesh tolerably juicy ; valued for market and
cooking. Tree a vigorous grower and a good bearer.

Michael Henry Pippin. — Origin New Jersey. Medium,
roundish, oblong ; yellowish green ; flesh greenish white,
tender, juicy, mild, sweet. — Mid-Winter. Tree a good,
upright grower, and hardy and very productive.

Monmoilth Pippin. — Origin New Jersey. Large, ob-
late; pale yellow, with a red cheek in sun; flesh juicy,
brisk, aromatic sub-acid. — Middle to late Winter. Keeps
well. Tree a moderate, upright grower, and productive ;
a beautiful and excellent fruit.

APPLES. 347

Moore's Sweet (RED SWEET PIPPIN, etc.). — Medium,
roundish, flattened ; dark, dull red ; flesh yellowish, pleas-
ant, rich, sweet. — Early to late Winter. Tree moderately
vigorous, hardy, very productive. A profitable orchard
sort for market, cooking, or stock-feeding.

Mother. — Origin Massachusetts. Medium, roundish,
slightly conical ; yellow, nearly covered, splashed, and
marbled with rich shades of red ; flesh yellowish, tender,
juicy, rich, aromatic sub-acid. — Early Winter. Tree
moderately vigorous, upright, productive ; a valuable
dessert apple.

Munson Sweet (OKANGE SWEET, etc.). — Origin prob-
ably Massachusetts. Medium, flat ; yellow, with some-
times a blush ; flesh yellowish, juicy, sweet. — Autumn and
early Winter. Tree a vigorous, spreading grower, and
a good bearer.

Newtown Pippin (GEEEN NEWTOWN PIPPIN). — Origin
Long Island. Medium size, roundish, obscurely ribbed ;
olive green, brownish on sunny side ; flesh greenish white,
very juicy, crisp, with delicious aromatic flavor. — Late
Winter. Tree a slender, slow grower, on rich soils makes
a medium-sized round head, productive. Both this and
the Yellow Newtown Pippin require rich soil and good
care, and with these are profitable only in particular lo-
calities. There is so little difference between the two that
many regard them as identical.

Newtown Spitzenblirgh ( VANDEEVEEE OF NEW YOEK).
— Medium size, oblatev roundish ; yellow, shaded and
striped with red, light bloom ; flesh yellow, tender, juicy,
rich, sprightly vinous. — Early Winter. Tree moderately
vigorous, spreading, very productive ; succeeds in nearly
all soils, and valuable for table or market. It has ten or
more synonyms, and is generally and popularly known in
all New York as Vandervere of New York. The name of

348 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKUITS.

Newtown Spitzenburgh having "been first given this apple
by Coxe, it has again been adopted.

Nickajack (WINTEII ROSE, etc.). — Origin North Caro-
lina. Large size, roundish ; yellowish, striped and shaded
with red ; flesh yellowish, moderately tender, juicy, pleas-
ant.— Late Winter. Tree a vigorous, upright, spreading
grower, forming a large head, hardy and productive.
The variety is extensively grown South and West, and
has many synonyms.

Northern Spy. — Origin New York. Large, roundish,
oblate, conical; pale yellow, mostly covered, when ex-
posed to sun, with stripes of light and dark red ; flesh
white, fine-grained, tender, sub-acid, sprightly delicious. —
Mid to late Winter. Tree a rapid, upright grower, re-
quires good soil, blooms late, very productive, but not an
early bearer ; a fruit of unrivalled beauty and excellence.

Ortley (WOODMAN'S LONG, etc.). — Origin New Jersey.
Medium to large, roundish, oblong, conic; greenish yel-
low, fine yellow at maturity; flesh white, fine-grained,
tender, juicy, pleasant sub-acid. — Mid- Winter. Tree vig-
orous, with slender shoots, an abundant bearer. The
Ortley has some .thirty synonyms, is a hardy tree, and
popular South and West.

Peck's Pleasant.— Origin probably Rhode Island.
Above medium size, roundish, flattened ; yellow, with a
blush-red on sunny side; flesh yellowish, fine-grained,
juicy, crisp, tender, aromatic sub-acid. — Mid- Winter.
Tree a moderate, upright, spreading grower, a regular,
even bearer, very valuable for market or table use.

Phillips' Sweet, — Origin Ohio. Above medium, round-
ish, flattened, inclining to conic ; light yellow, shaded and
striped, mostly covered with shades of red ; flesh white,
crisp, pleasant, juicy, rich sweet. — Early to late Winter.
Tree a thrifty, upright grower, an early and abundant
bearer ; one of the finest of sweet apples.

APPLES. 349

Pomme Grise. — Origin probably France. Below me-
dium size, roundish, oblate ; greenish gray, mostly cov-
ered with russet; flesh tender and rich. — Mid-Winter.
Tree a moderate grower, forming a small head, and bear-
ing early ; valued as a dessert fruit.

Pryor's Red. — Origin supposed Virginia. Medium,
roundish, oblate ; greenish yellow, shaded with red ; flesh
yellowish, tender, juicy, pleasant sub-acid. — Late Winter.
Tree moderately vigorous, upright, spreading, requires a
rich soil ; much grown and valued in Kentucky.

Rambo (ROMANITE, etc.). — Origin Delaware. Medium
size, flat; yellow and red ; flesh tender, rich, mild sub-
acid. — Early Winter. Tree vigorous, spreading, produc-
tive. The Rambo is an old, highly and widely esteemed
variety, for orchard or garden.

Ramsdell'S Sweet (ENGLISH SWEET, etc.). — Origin
unknown. Above medium size, oblong ; mostly covered
with red, and a bloom ; flesh yellowish, tender, sweet, rich.
— Early Winter. Tree vigorous, upright, an early bearer.

Rawle's Janet (JENITON, etc.). — Origin Virginia. Above
medium size, oblate, conic ; yellow, striped and shaded
with red; flesh whitish yellow, tender, pleasant, juicy,
sub-acid. — Late Winter. Tree very hardy and vigorous,
blooms late, productive; largely cultivated in Missouri
and other parts of the South-west. At the late meeting
of the American Pomological Society, Dr. Howsley, of
Kansas, who claims to know the origin of this famous
fruit, stated that it should be JEANNETTE.

Red Canada (RICHFIELD NOXSTTCH, etc.). — Medium,
roundish ; yellow, mostly covered with red ; flesh tender,
crisp, juicy, brisk, delicate, mild sub-acid. — Late Winter.
Tree a thrifty but slender grower, productive. A popular
and valuable sort in all the Middle, North, and West sec-
tions ; a superior fruit for table or market ; very success-

350 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

ful and popular in Michigan, where it is frequently called
" Steele's Red Winter."

Red Winter Pearmain (BATCHELOR, etc.).— Origin un-
known. Medium size, roundish oblong ; yellowish white,
mostly covered with maroon red; flesh whitish yellow,
tender, juicy, mild sub-acid. — Early to late Winter. Tree
a moderate, upright grower, and good bearer. This
variety has a dozen or more synonyms, under some one of
which it is widely grown West and South.

Rhode Island Greening. — Large, roundish; greenish
yellow ; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, aromatic acid. — Early
Winter. Tree a vigorous, strong grower, and very pro-
ductive. This variety is too well known to need a word.
It is one of the most profitable and valuable in almost all
the North, but South it drops its fruit too early.

Ribston Pippin. — Origin England. Medium, roundish ;
greenish yellow, and dull red ; flesh yellow, firm, crisp,
rich, aromatic. — Early to late Winter. Tree moderately
vigorous, spreading, productive; valued in Maine and all
Northern sections.

Roxbury Russet* — Origin Massachusetts. Medium to
large, roundish, flattened ; dull green, covered with
brownish yellow russet ; flesh greenish white, moderately
juicy, sub-acid. — Late Winter. Tree moderately vigor-
ous, productive; an old, well-known, popular sort, suc-
cessful in all New England and large portions of the
Middle and Western States.

Shockley. — Origin Georgia. Below medium size,
roundish, conical ; yellow, mostly covered with red ; flesh
crisp, juicy, rich, pleasant. — Late Winter. Tree moder-
ately vigorous, upright, hardy, and very productive ; very
popular and profitable at the South.

Smith's Cider. — Origin Pennsylvania. Medium to
large, roundish ; yellow, shaded with red ; flesh whitish,
crisp, tender, juicy, pleasant, mild sub-acid. — Early to late

APPLES. 351

Winter. Tree a very vigorous but straggling grower,
productive ; popular as a market-orchard sort, in many
localities ; succeeds best from New Jersey southward.

Smokehouse. — Origin Pennsylvania. Above medium,
roundish, oblate ; yellow, shaded with red ; flesh yellow-
ish, juicy, rather rich sub-acid. — Early Winter. Tree
moderately vigorous, a good bearer; esteemed where
known for market and cooking.

Stanard* — Medium to large, roundish, oblate ; dull
yellow, splashed and striped with red ; flesh yellowish,
rather coarse, j uicy, sub-acid. — Late Winter. Tree a rapid
but crooked grower, very hardy, abundant bearer, and
profitable North and West.

Swaar, — Origin New York. Large, roundish ; yellow
at maturity ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, tender, rich,
spicy, aromatic, mild sub-acid. — Middle to late Winter.
Tree a moderate grower, good bearer, needs a deep, dry
soil and good culture.

Talman'S Sweet, — Origin Rhode Island. Medium,
round; yellowish; flesh white, rather firm, rich, sweet.
— Early to late Winter. Tree vigorous, hardy, and pro-
ductive ; highly valued over a large territory of country,
as a profitable orchard sort, for cooking, or stock pur-
poses.

Tewksbury Winter Blush, — Origin New Jersey. Small,
oblate, roundish ; light yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh
yellowish, moderately juicy, pleasant sub-acid. — Very late
Winter. Tree a rapid, upright grower, very productive ;
an old sort, valued for its long-keeping qualities.

Twenty-Ounce (CAYUGA RED STREAK). — Origin sup-
posed Connecticut. Very large, roundish; greenish yel-
low, marbled and striped with purplish red ; flesh rather
coarse, brisk sub-acid. — Mid-Autumn to early Winter.
Tree an upright, thrifty, compact grower, and a good

352 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKUITS.

bearer. It is one of the popular market sorts, always fair
and handsome, excellent for cooking.

Wagener, — Origin ]STew York. Medium, roundish, ob-
late ; yellow, mostly shaded with red ; flesh yellowish,
tender, juicy, brisk, slightly vinous. — Early Winter. Tree
a thrifty, upright grower, and an early and over-abund-
ant bearer.

Westfield Seek - no - Further, — Origin Connecticut.
Large, roundish, conical ; green yellow, mostly covered with
dull red ; flesh white, fine-grained, tender, rich, sub-acid. —
Early to mid Winter. Tree a moderate, healthy, upright,
spreading grower, very productive.

White Pippin. — Large, roundish, oblate ; greenish, be-
coming pale whitish yellow at maturity, sometimes a dull
blush cheek in sun ; flesh white, tender, juicy, crisp, rich,
sub-acid. — Late Winter. Tree thrifty, upright grower,
and a good bearer ; considerably grown in the West and
highly esteemed.

White Winter Pearmain* — Medium or above, roundish,
oblong ; pale yellow, with a blush cheek in sun exposures ;
flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, pleasant sub-acid. — Late
Winter. Tree hardy, vigorous, spreading, productive;
esteemed in somo localities at tho West, little known
East.

Willow Twig, — Medium size, roundish, or roundish ob-
late ; yellow, shaded and marbled with dull red ; flesh
not very tender, pleasant sub-acid. — Yery late Winter.
Tree hardy, but a spreading, poor grower while young,
very productive, and much cultivated at the South-west
as a profitable market sort, on account of keeping and
carrying qualities.

Wine (WINTER WIXE, HAY'S, PENNSYLVANIA RED
STREAK). — Origin Delaware. Above medium size, round,
or roundish ; yellow, mostly covered with lively, rich,
deep red ; flesh yellowish white, juicy, rich, vinous, pleas-

APPLES.

ant. — Early to late Winter. Tree a thrifty grower, hardy,
and very productive ; widely successful West and South.

Winesap* — Origin New Jersey. Medium size, round-
ish, oblong, conical ; yellow ground, mostly covered with
rich dark red; flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, juicy, rich
flavor. — Early to late Winter. Tree a healthy grower,
very hardy, an early and abundant bearer ; successful and
profitable as an orchard variety over a large portion of
our country, especially West and South.

Winter Sweet Paradise. — Origin Pennsylvania. Large,
roundish, oblate ; dull green, with a brownish red blush ;
flesh white, fine-grained, juicy, sweet. — Early and mid
Winter. Tree a vigorous, upright grower, productive,
but not an early bearer.

Yeliow Bellflower, — Origin New Jersey. Large, ob-
long, slightly conical ; lemon-yellow, usually with a blush
in sun exposures; flesh breaking, tender, juicy, sprightly,
sharp sub-acid. — Early to late Winter. Tree moderately
vigorous, forming a spreading, rather drooping head, not
an early but abundant bearer.

Yellow Newtown Pippin, — Above medium to large,
roundish oblate ; greenish, becoming quite yellow when
fully ripe; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, with a rich, high flavor.
— Late Winter. Tree a moderate grower, requiring a rich
soil, when it is productive and profitable.

CLASS IV. APPLES FOR ORNAMENT OR PRESERVING.

The Siberian Crabs are beautiful little fruits, varying in
size from one to one and a half inch in diameter. They
are much esteemed for preserving, and as an ornamental
tree, whether in blossom or loaded with their brilliantly-
colored fruit, they merit a place in the smallest garden.
In extensive grounds they may be planted in groups, pro-
ducing a fine effect.

354 SELECT VARIETIES OF FEUITS.

Cherry Crab. — Small, roundish, pointed ; light yellow,
shaded with red ; flesh crisp, pleasant ; hangs long on the
tree. — Early Autumn. Tree a moderate, healthy grower,
makes a handsome round head.

Hyslop. — Large, for a crab, roundish, egg-shaped ; dark,
rich red, with a thick blue bloom ; flesh yellowish ; fine
for cooking or cider ; bears in clusters. Tree a strong,
spreading grower.

Lady Crab. — Small, roundish, flattened; rich dark red,
with some russet ; flesh yellowish, mild sub-acid. Tree a
vigorous, very upright grower. A foreign variety of
great beauty.

Large Red Siberian Crab.— Nearly twice the size of
the common Siberian crab ; yellow, shaded, on sun side,
with bright red. Tree very vigorous, forming a large head ;
valued for preserving.

Large Yellow Siberian Crab. — Resembles the fore-
going except in the shape of its fruit, which is more oval,
and the color a light, clear yellow.

Montreal Beauty. — Large, roundish, flattened ; bright
yellow, mostly covered with clear, bright, rich red.

Oblong Siberian Crab, — Medium size, oblong in form ;
beautifully shaded with rich crimson ; thin bloom.

Red Siberian Crab, — Small, roundish; bright lively
scarlet, over a close yellow ground, light bloom ; an old,
well-known sort.

Transcendent. — Large, roundish oblong, slightly flat-
tened ; golden yellow, with a crimson cheek in sun, white
bloom, often the red nearly covers the entire surface. It
is highly prized in some sections as a table fruit in
autumn. Tree a strong, rapid grower and abundant
bearer.

Yellow Siberian Crab.— The fruit of this is a trifle
larger than Red Siberian, and is of a fine, clear yellow color.

APPLES. 355

There have recently been introduced a number of new
seedling crabs, originated chiefly at the West. Some of
them arc described as keeping into mid-winter, some of
such quality as to fit them for the dessert, and all repre-
sented as valuable, in the extreme North and North-west,
for their hardiness.

They are a highly interesting class of fruits, and quite
likely to prove valuable.

SELECT LIST OF APPLES.

The following varieties arc recommended for the East-
ern and Middle States.

Summer. — Early Harvest, Early Strawberry, Golden
Sweet, Large Yellow Bough, Red Astrachan, Williams'
Favorite.

Autumn. — Chenango Strawberry, Duchess of Olden-
burg, Fall Pippin, Gravenstein, Hawthornden, Jefferis,
Jersey Sweet, Lowell, Ly man's Pumpkin Sweet, Porter,
St. Lawrence.

Winter. — Baldwin, Esopus Spitzenburgh, Fameuse,
Golden Russet of Western New York, Hubbardston Non-
such, Jonathan, King of Tompkins County, Lady Apple,
Monmouth Pippin, Mother, Northern Spy, Peck's Pleas-
ant, Pomme Gris, Red Canada, Rhode Island Greening,
Roxbury Russet, Talman's Sweet, Twenty-Ounce, Wag-
ener, Yellow Bellflower.

For the West and South :

Nearly all the summer and fall varieties of the Eastern
and Middle States succeed well at the West and South.
The winter varieties specially adapted to those regions
are so designated in the previous lists. In California and
Oregon our best Northern sorts generally succeed, but the
winter varieties of the South will be better adapted to

356 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

the warmer districts of California, than our Northern
winter sorts.

CHOICE GARDEN VARIETIES.

Red Astrachan, Early Strawberry, Early Joe, Keswick
Codlin (cooking), Summer Rose, Duchess of Oldenburgh,
Fall Pippin, Gravenstein, Garden Royal, Dyer, Fameuse,
Jonathan, Lady Apple, Melon, Northern Spy, Pomme
Gris, Red Canada, Swaar, Esopus Spitzenburgh, Wagener.

TWENTY VERY LARGE AND BEAUTIFUL SORTS FOR DWARFS.

Red Astrachan, Large Sweet Bough, Beauty of Kent,
Alexander, Duchess of Oldenburgh, Fall Pippin, Wil-
liams' Favorite, Gravenstein, Ilawthornden, Maiden's
Blush, Porter, Menagere, Baldwin, Bailey Sweet, Canada
Reinette, Northern Spy, Mother, Rambo, Twenty-Ounce,
Wagener.

SECTION 2. — SELECT PEARS.
CLASS I. SUMMER PEARS.

Bartlett (WILLIAMS' BONCHRETIEN, etc.). — Origin Eng-
land. Large, obtuse, pyriform ; bright, clear yellow, when
fully ripe, sometimes a little russet ; flesh white, buttery,
juicy, musky perfume. — Late Summer. Tree an upright,
thrifty, healthy grower, very productive. The Bartlett
is one of the few good pears that succeed everywhere ; it
has no competitor as a summer market fruit ; bears early
as a standard.

Beurrtf Gilford. — Origin France. Medium size, pyri-
form ; greenish yellow, with considerable red in sun ; flesh
white, melting, juicy, vinous, perfumed. — Late Summer.
Tree a slender grower, healthy, hardy, very productive ;
a beautiful fruit and the best of its season ; should be gath-
ered early.

357

BlOOdgOOd. — Origin Long Island. Medium size, tur-
binate, fleshy at base of stalk ; skin yellow, with russet
dots and network markings ; flesh yellowish white,
buttery, melting, sugary, very aromatic. — Mid-Summer.
Tree is hardy, with close, firm, short-jointed wood, an
early and abundant bearer ; a delicious pear, but not at-
tractive for market.

BraildywiiiC. — Origin Pennsylvania. Medium size, py-
riform ; dull yellowish green, slight touch of russet, and
blush cheek on sun side ; flesh white, juicy, melting,
vinous, aromatic. — Late Summer. Tree an upright, vig-
orous grower, with rich glossy foliage and very pro-
ductive.

(Lapp's Favorite, — Origin Massachusetts. Large, ob-
ovate ; pale yellow, marbled and splashed with red and
light brown ; flesh white, fine-grained, juicy, melting,
buttery, rich, vinous, perfumed, sweet. — Late Summer.
Tree an upright, spreading, open grower, bearing its fruit
evenly distributed, very productive ; a comparatively new
variety of great promise, supposed to be a cross between
Flemish Beauty and Bartlett ; the tree resembles the
former, the fruit the latter.

Dearborn's Seedling. — Origin Massachusetts. Below
medium size, roundish, oval; skin smooth, light yellow,
or straw color ; flesh white, very juicy, sweet, melting,
sprightly. — Late Summer. Tree a fine grower, an early
and profuse bearer. The tree is quite hardy and succeeds
in almost all localities ; very fine for the dessert.

Doyenntf d'Ettf (SUMMER DOYENNE). — Origin Belgium.
Small, roundish ; fine yellow, often with a bright red cheek
in sun ; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, pleasant. — Mid-
Summer. Tree an upright, vigorous grower, an early and
abundant bearer ; this is the first to ripen of the really
good pears.

Duchesse de Berry d'Ettf, — Origin France. Small,

358 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

roundish, slightly pyriform ; yellow, shaded with light
red, more or less russet, and often a red cheek; flesh
juicy, melting, vinous. — Late Summer. Tree a fine, vig-
orous grower, and a good bearer ; an excellent and beau-
tiful fruit, not extensively cultivated.

Madeleine (CITRON DES CARMES). — Origin France.
Medium size, obovate, pyriform ; bright yellow, with a
red cheek ; flesh white, juicy, sugary, sprightly, aromatic.
— Late Summer. Tree a fine grower, forming a fine, up-
right head, productive ; a very old and excellent sort, not
so much planted as formerly, owing to the introduction of
new varieties.

Manning's Elizabeth. — Origin Belgium. Below me-
dium size, obtuse, pyriform; bright yellow, with a lively
red cheek; flesh white, juicy, very melting, sugary,
sprightly, aromatic. — Late Summer. Tree a moderate
grower, an even, regular bearer ; the small size, beauty,
and excellent quality of this variety recommend it to all
amateurs.

Osband's Summer (SUMMER VIRGALIEU). — Origin New
York. Medium size, obtuse pyriform ; yellow, dotted
with green and brown dots, thin russet, red cheek in the
sun. — Mid-Summer. Tree moderately vigorous, upright,
an early and abundant bearer.

Rostiezer. — Origin Germany. Medium or below in
size, oblong, pyriform; dull yellowish, mixed with red-
dish brown ; flesh juicy, slightly buttery, melting, sugary ?
vinous, aromatic, perfumed.— Late Summer. Tree a
rapid, vigorous, but straggling grower, requiring severe
pruning while young to form a good head ; bears early
and abundantly ; a pear of fine quality, but not attractive
for market.

Tyson, — Origin Pennsylvania. Medium size, clear yel-
low, with a bright, red cheek ; flesh juicy, very sweet,
melting, slightly aromatic. — Late Summer. Tree a vig-

PEARS. 359

orous, upright grower, not an early bearer, but very pro-
ductive ; a variety of great excellence both in tree and
fruit.

CLASS II. AUTUMN PEARS.

Ananas d'Ete'* — Origin Holland. Above medium size,
pyriform, sometimes obtuse ; yellow, with brown russet
in sun ; flesh fine-grained, buttery, melting, sweet, per-
fumed.— Early Autumn. Tree vigorous, an early and
profuse bearer.

Baronne de iUollo, — Origin Belgium. Medium, vary-
ing in form, often roundish, acute, pyriform ; yellowish,
nearly covered with brown russet; flesh whitish, a little
coarse, juicy, melting, vinous sub-acid. — Mid- Autumn.
Tree productive, hardy, and a vigorous grower.

Belle Epine Dumas (Due DB BOURDEAUX).— Medium
size, obtuse, pyriform ; greenish yellow, with russet dots ;
flesh white, half-melting, buttery, juicy, sweet. — Late Au-
tumn. Tree a vigorous, fine grower, and a good bearer.

Belle Lucrative (FOND ANTE D'AUTOMNE). — Medium
size, form variable, generally roundish, obtuse, pyriform ;
flesh melting, juicy, rich, sugary, delicious. — Early Au-
tumn. Tree moderately vigorous, healthy, hardy, and
productive.

Beurre' d'AnjOU (Ns PLUS MEURIS OF THE FRENCH). —
Origin Belgium. Large size, short or blunt pyriform ; skin
greenish yellow, with traces of russet, dull crimson dots
and sometimes a shade of crimson in the sun ; flesh whit-
ish, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous, perfumed, pleasant. —
Late Autumn to early Winter. Tree a vigorous, healthy
grower, making an open, round-headed tree, that bears
its fruit evenly distributed and of uniform size ; one of
the most profitable varieties for orchard or garden; gen-
erally regarded as one of the most valuable pears grown,
succeeding everywhere.

360 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Beurrl BOSC. — Origin Belgium. Large, pyriform, oi'
long pyriform; dark yellow, often much covered with
dull cinnamon russet, in dots or streaks, occasionally a
tinge of red ; flesh white, very buttery, melting, rich, and
deliciously perfumed. — Mid-Autumn. Tree a healthy,
good grower, but often irregular ; not an early but an
abundant bearer, producing its fruit singly, and evenly
distributed on the tree ; a valuable orchard variety, of
splendid appearance and finest quality.

Beurrtf de Brignais (DES NONNES, etc.). — Medium
size, roundish, flattened ; greenish, with many dots ; flesh
melting, juicy, with a brisk, high perfumed flavor. — Early
Autumn. Tree a hardy, vigorous grower, productive.

Beurrtf Clairgeail, — Origin France. Large, pyriform ;
yellow, shaded with orange and crimson, much dotted
and sprinkled with russet ; flesh yellowish, juicy, buttery,
a little granular, sweet, vinous, perfumed. — Late Autumn
to early Winter. Tree very vigorous, with erect habit
and fine foliage, an early and abundant bearer, and, al-
though a little variable in quality, its size, beauty, and
productiveness make it a very profitable market variety.
In some cases it seems disposed to shed its leaves prema-
turely— a serious defect.

Beurrtf Did* — Origin Belgium. Large, obtuse, pyri-
form ; skin rather rough, rich yellow when fully and
well ripened, some russet ; flesh yellowish white, a little
coarse-grained, buttery, sugary, half-melting, delicious. —
Early to late Autumn. Tree very vigorous, and an
abundant bearer ; on young trees the fruit is sometimes
not first-rate, but with age it assumes its true character,
and is one of the most profitable market sorts. In West-
ern New York and some other localities, it has suffered
in some seasons from the black rust on the fruit, and
blighting " scalding " of the foliage.

Hardy, — Large, obtuse, pyriform ; greenish,

PEARS. 361

covered with light russet, and shaded one side with
brownish red ; flesh melting, buttery, juicy, brisk, vinous,
slightly astringent, perfumed. — Early Autumn. Tree a
strong grower, with erect habit and ample foliage, very
productive ; a beautiful and delicious fruit, worthy of more
general cultivation.

Beurrtf Supcrfin. — Origin France. Medium size,
roundish, pyriform ; yellow, with bright red in the sun,
and some russet; flesh buttery, very juicy, melting,
vinous, sub-acid. — Mid- Autumn. Tree hardy, a moder-
ately vigorous grower, not an early but a good bearer
when at maturity ; in quality it is among the best.

BulToi* — Origin Rhode Island. Medium size, obovate,
oblong ; deep yellow, when fully ripe, with re 1 covering
nearly one side, sometimes a little russet ; flesh white,
sweet, moderately juicy, buttery, pleasant. — Early Au-
tumn. Tree a strong, upright grower, forming a beautiful,
compact head, a regular and productive bearer, hardy,
and valuable for the orchard. Tree remarkable for its
upright, symmetrical, and vigorous growth.

Colt's Beurrtf. — Origin Ohio. Medium, obtuse, pyri-
form ; yellow, slightly russet, often a red cheek ; flesh
white, melting, juicy, rich, vinous. — Early Autumn. Tree
a healthy, good grower, an early, good bearer; makes a
fine, round, half-covnpact head.

De Tongres (DURANDEAU). — Origin France. Large,
long, pyriform; pile yellow, with cinnamon russet, which
becomes red on sun side ; flesh melting, juicy, vinous,
sugary, rich. — Mid-Autumn. Tree moderately vigorous,
an early and abundant bearer ; a large, handsome fruit,
but somewhat variable in quality.

DiXi — Origin Massachusetts. Large, long, pyriform',

deep yellow, with more or less of russet; flesh juicy,

sugary, melting, slightly perfumed. — Mid to late Autumn.

Tree hardy, vigorous, a tardy bearer, but productive when

362 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

mature ; a fine and profitable orchard sort, only for the
serious drawback of tardy bearing, on account of which
it is now seldom planted.

Doctor Reeder* — Origin New York. Small to medium
size, roundish, slightly pyriform ; yellow, mostly covered
with nettings of russet and russet dots ; flesh fine, melt-
ing, juicy, buttery, sugary, vinous, slightly musky. — Late
Autumn. Tree a healthy, hardy, vigorous, open, spread-
ing grower, productive ; comparatively a new variety of
great promise ; a delicious fruit, valuable for the amateur ;
not large nor showy enough for market.

Doyennl BouSSOCk (BEURRE BOUSSOCK, etc.). — Origin
Belgium. Large, varying in form, usually roundish, or
obtuse pyriform; deep yellow, clouded with russet,
bronzed red cheek in the sun. — Early Autumn. Tree very
vigorous, upright, spreading ; an early, abundant bearer ;
profitable for market.

Doyenntf du Cornice. — Origin France. Large, broad,
obtuse pyriform ; greenish yellow, clear yellow at ma-
turity, some russet ; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet,
rich, slightly aromatic. — Late Autumn. Tree moderately
vigorous, upright, productive ; comparatively new and of
the highest promise.

Doyenne' Gray, — Medium size, obovate ; dull yellow,
mostly covered with smooth cinnamon russet ; flesh very
buttery, fine-grained, rich, delicious. — Mid-Autumn. Tree
a moderate, healthy grower, a good bearer ; very valuable
for orchard or garden; by many esteemed superior to
White Doyenne. In some localities, as in Western New
York, both these varieties are often rendered worthless
by black rust and cracking.

Doyenne' White (BUTTER PEAR, VIRGALIEU, and thirty
more synonyms.) — Medium to large, obovate ; when fully
ripe, pale yellow, often with a fine, red cheek ; flesh white,
fine-grained, melting, very buttery, rich, delicious. — Early

PEARS. 363

to late Autumn. Tree a healthy, vigorous grower, hardy,
productive; unreliable East and in Western New York,
but in the new, rich soils West, one of the best. Twenty
years ago this was regarded as the best of all pears ; now
it is an outcast in many localities.

Duchesse d'AngOllleme, — Origin France. Large to
very large, oblong, obovate ; dull greenish yellow, with
more or less of russet spots and streaks; flesh white,
buttery, juicy, excellent. — Mid-Autumn. Tree a very
vigorous grower, the most successful on the quince, pro-
ductive and very profitable ; has gained much in popu-
larity in a few years, because better understood. Is now
regarded as one of the most valuable varieties- cultivated ;
it is next to Bartlett in popularity among the market-
growers all over the country.

Emilc d'Heyst, — Origin Belgium. Large, oblong, pyri-
form; clear yello\v, with a brownish cheek in the sun,
netted and patched with russet ; flesh yellowish white,
juicy, fine-grained, melting, sweet, aromatic, excellent. —
Early Winter. Tree a vigorous, spreading grower, hold-
ing its foliage late in autumn, very productive ; taking
rank as a valuable early winter sort.

Flemish Beauty (BELLE BE FLANDERS, and twenty
more synonyms). — Large, roundish, pyriform ; yellow,
mostly covered with marblings and patches of light
russet, brownish red in the sun ; flesh yellowish white,
juicy, melting, sweet, rich, slightly musky. — Early Au-
tumn. Tree hardy, vigorous, an early and abundant
bearer, and highly valued West for orchard or garden ;
sometimes seriously attacked with black fungus or rust,
and cracking in New York and Eastern States.

FultODi— Origin Maine. Below medium size, roundish,
flattened ; gray russet, becoming at maturity dark cinna-
mon russet ; flesh moderately juicy, half-buttery, spright-
ly, agreeable. — Mid to late Autumn. Tree a moderate

36 A SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS

but healthy grower, hardy, and productive; valuable for
the orchard.

Howell. — Origin Connecticut. Rather large, roundish,
pyriform; light yellow, with a clear, red cheek; flesh
whitish, juicy, melting, vinous. — Early and mid Autumn.
Tree an upright, vigorous grower, an early and abundant
bearer ; one of the most beautiful and excellent of pears,
and promising to be ofgr^aTra;hre'over aTarge extent o$
country ; beginning to be much planted for market • the
fruit bears carriage well.

Jones (JONES'S SEEDLING). — Origin Pennsylvania. Me-
dium or below in size, roundish, pyriform ; yellow, shaded
with russet, bright cinnamon russet in the sun ; flesh
rather coarse, granular, buttery, sugary, vinous. — Middle
to late Autumn. Tree a vigorous, upright grower, and
productive ; a fine little pear for the amateur's collection.

Kir Hand, — Origin Ohio. Medium, roundish, obovate ;
rich yellow, much covered with cinnamon russet, and red
on sun side ; flesh juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic. — Early
Autumn. Tree moderately vigorous, stocky, healthy,
and productive.

Louise Bonne de Jersey, — Origin France. Large,
long pyriform ; greenish yellow, mostly overspread with
brownish red, and a red cheek in sun ; flesh melting, very
juicy, rich, vinous, excellent. — Early Autumn. Tree a
rapid, upright grower, and abundant bearer ; one of the
very best on quince ; a profitable market pear where it suc-
ceeds.

Merriam. — Origin Massachusetts. Medium, roundish ;
dull yellow, with more or less of russet ; flesh yellowish,
rather coarse, melting, juicy, slightly vinous, musky. —
Mid- Autumn. Tree vigorous, very productive ; an ex-
ceedingly profitable orchard sort, but little grown out of
Massachusetts.

Marlchal de la Cour (CONSEILLER DE LA COUR, etc.). —

PEAKS. 365

Origin Belgium. Medium to large size, pyriform ; green-
ish yellow, with more or less russet ; flesh yellowish white,
melting, buttery, juicy, rich, vinous. — Mid-Autumn. Tree
moderately vigorous, holds its foliage late in season, a
good bearer.

Onondaga (SWAN'S ORANOE). — This pear was first
introduced by the late General Swan, of Rochester,
N". Y., under the name of " Swan's Orange," from
Clinton, N". Y., but it was supposed to be traced to Con-
necticut. Fruit large, obtuse, pyriform, surface rather
uneven ; skin orange yellow at maturity, with traces of
russet in some localities, rarely a red cheek ; flesh melt-
ing, rather coarse, juicy, vinous, sometimes slightly
astringent, a little variable but generally excellent. Tree
a strong grower, hardy, and very productive.

Paradise d'Automne, — Origin Belgium. Large, long
pyriform ; yellow, mostly covered with cinnamon russet ;
flesh often slightly granular, melting, juicy, with a rich,
vinous, aromatic flavor. — Early to mid Autumn. Tree a
vigorous, rather irregular grower, an early, good bearer ;
fine for the garden, not suited to orchard.

Pratt. — Origin Rhode Island. Medium, roundish, py-
riform ; greenish lemon-yellow, shaded with red in the
sun ; flesh juicy, sugary, melting, briskly vinous. — Early
Autumn. Tree an upright grower, very productive.

St. Michael Archangel. — Origin France. Large, obo-
vate, pyriform; p;ile yellow, netted and patched with
russet ; flesh buttery, juicy, melting, slightly aromatic. —
Mid-Autumn. Tree a vigorous, symmetrical, upright
grower, productive ; a beautiful fruit, but variable in
quality, generally excellent.

Seckcl. — Origin Pennsylvania. Small, roundish, ovate ;
dull yellow brown, with a russet red cheek ; flesh buttery,
very juicy, rich, spicy, aromatic. — Early Autumn. Tree
a slow but healthy, hardy grower, upright, forming a

366 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

small, compact head ; successful and well known every-
where. Although it takes a little more time to bring
this variety into profitable bearing condition, yet it is a
reliable and permanently valuable sort for orchard or
garden.

Sheldon* — Origin "New York. Medium, roundish ;
greenish yellow, a thin, light russet and a bright red or
crimson in the sun; flesh very juicy, melting, vinous,
sweet, aromatic. Tree hardy, a vigorous, upright grow-
er, forming a handsome, round head, a good bearer. This
noble fruit, like some other varieties, is often condemned
as rotting at the core, but it only requires to be gathered
early and used when ripe, like Flemish Beauty, Clapp's
Favorite, Beurre Giflard, and others.

SouTCnir d'Esperen, — Origin France. Medium to
large, long pyriform ; greenish yellow, mostly covered
with russet; flesh yellowish, juicy, vinous, aromatic. —
Mid to late Autumn. Tree vigorous, healthy, and hardy,
holds its foliage late in the season, productive.

Stevens' Genesec. — Origin New York. Large, round-
ish ; yellow ; flesh half-buttery, rich, aromatic flavor. —
Early Autumn. Tree a healthy, good grower, and pro-
ductive. It is not as popular as formerly in Western
New York, but West, and especially in light soils, it is
one of the profitable sorts ; needs to be gathered early
and used as soon as ripe.

Urfoaniste (BEURRE PICQUERY, etc.). — Medium to large
size, roundish, pyriform ; pale yellow, with some russet ;
flesh very melting, buttery, juicy, rich, and delicately
perfumed. — Early and mid Autumn. Tree a moderate,
vigorous, compact, pyramidal grower, very hardy, not an
early bearer, but an abundant one at maturity ; very val-
uable and profitable for the orchard.

Washington* — Origin Delaware. Medium size, oval ;
clear, lemon yellow, with some red in sun and reddish

PEARS. 367

clots ; flesh very juicy, sweet, melting, agreeable. — Early
Autumn. Tree a slender but healthy and vigorous
grower, and a good bearer ; this is one of our native
pears that has been too much overlooked ; a very beauti-
ful and excellent variety for the amateur's collection.

CLASS HI. WINTER PEARS.

Beurrtf Easter (DOYENNE D'HIVER, and a dozen or
more other synonyms). Large, roundish, oval ; yellowish,
more or less of russet in dots, which sometimes gives it a
brownish cheek ; flesh fine-grained, very buttery, melting,
and juicy, sweet, and rich. — Very late Winter, we have
often kept it until April. The tree is a moderate grower,
making a compact, upright, round head, bearing abun-
dantly. It is one of the best sorts for the South and
South-west, but requires warm exposure when grown
North and East. Everywhere it requires good, rich soil,
good culture, and careful thinning of the fruit to bring it
to perfection.

Beiii-rtf Gris d'Hiver Nouveau, — Medium to large,
roundish, obtuse ; rich yellow russet, with a fine, sunny
cheek of dark red ; flesh slightly granular, buttery, melt-
ing, rich, sugary. — Early to mid Winter. Tree a moder-
ately vigorous grower, somewhat irregular, good bearer ;
a noble fruit, worthy of careful treatment.

Beurrtf d'Aremberg (Due D'AREMBERG, etc.). — Origin
France. Medium to large, obovate, uneven surface ;
greenish yellow, yellow at maturity with some russet ;
flesh white, buttery, juicy, rich, vinous. — Early Winter.
Tree a slow grower and unhealthy ; a delicious winter
pear, but seldom planted, on account of its serious defects.

Cat iliac. — Large, or very large, broad, turbinate ; yel-
lowish, with a brown cheek ; flesh firm. — Early to late
Winter. Tree a strong grower and good bearer, best in

368 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

rich soil, and valued as a baking or cooking pear, and for
confectionary purposes.

Columbia* — Origin New York. Large, obovatc ; pale
green in autumn, becoming golden yellow at maturity,
with deep orange cheek in sun exposure ; flesh juicy,
sweet, aromatic. — Early Winter. Tree an upright, hand-
some grower, and a good bearer. Fruit liable to be
blown off, needs watching.

Dana9S Hovey, — Origin Massachusetts. Small, obovate,
pyriform; pale yellow, netted and patched with russet;
flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, aromatic. —
Early Winter. Tree a healthy, vigorous grower, hardy,
and productive ; a high-flavored, delicious pear for the
garden ; too small for profitable market growing, though
it commands high prices where known, like the Seckel.

Doyenntf d'Alen^on (DOYEXNE D'HIVER, D'ALEX^OX,

etc.). — Medium, roundish, slightly pyriform ; yellow,
shaded in sun with dark crimson, considerable russet ;
flesh granular, buttery, juicy, sugary, sprightly, per-
fumed.— Middle to late Winter, often keeping until
spring. Tree moderately vigorous and productive; a
valuable pear, like the Easter Beurre, though not in same
degree ; needs high culture and thinning of the fruit to
bring it to perfection ; tree more hardy than Easter
Beurre.

GlOllt Morceau. — Flemish origin. Kather large, often
very large, varying in form, usually short, pyriform;
greenish yellow, with patches and dots of greenish brown ;
flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sugary. —
Early Winter. Tree is of a roundish, spreading habit,
very healthy and hardy, not an early bearer, but when
mature produces an abundant crop, regular and uniform.
It is distinct in wood and foliage from other varieties, and
forms one of the handsomest of pyramids on quince roots.
In localities where the pear blight prevails it seems pecu-

PEAES. 369

liarly liable to attack, and recently has not been much
planted.

Josephine de Malines. — Medium size, roundish, flat-
tened ; pale yellow or straw color at maturity, sometimes
netted and patched with russet ; flesh white, tinted with
rose, juicy, melting, sweet, slight aroma. — Mid- Winter,
often keeps until Spring. Tree a moderate grower, hardy,
foliage small, quite productive ; a very valuable late pear,
and rapidly gaining in popularity.

Lawrence, — Origin Long Island. Medium or above
in size, obovate, obtuse pyriform; clear, light yellow,
with more or less of russet ; flesh juicy, melting, sweet,
aromatic. — Early Winter. Tree a moderate grower,
healthy, and a good bearer ; valuable both for garden and
orchard. It usually commands the highest price in
market ; one of the most valuable early winter sorts.

Fvedale's St. Germain (POUND, and over thirty other
synonyms). — Large, pyriform ; yellowish green ; flesh
firm, excellent for baking or stewing. — Early to late
Winter. Tree a strong, healthy grower, very productive ;
valued everywhere for cooking or preserving.

Vicar Of Winkfield (LA. CUBE, and two dozen more
synonyms). Origin France. Large, long pyriform ; pale
yellow at maturity, often, when well grown, with a
brownish red cheek ; flesh moderately juicy, half-buttery,
sprightly and good. — Early to mid or late Winter. Tree
a healthy, vigorous grower, and very productive ; this is
one of the most profitable as an orchard sort among the
whole list of pears, but needs to be well grown to be
good ; trees are apt to be overladen and should be
thinned.

Winter Nelis (BONNE DE MALiNES,etc.). — Medium size,

or below, roundish, obovate; yellowish green, patched

and marbled with considerable russet ; flesh fine-grained,

buttery, very juicy, sugary, aromatic. — Early Winter.

16*

370 SELECT VARIETIES OF FBUITS.

Tree thrifty, hardy, rather slender and somewhat irregular
grower, an early and regularly abundant bearer ; valuable
for the garden or amateur culture, but not profitable in
the orchard. The crop usually needs thinning, especially
on trees of considerable age ; fruit is always inferior when
the tree is overloaded, but this applies to nearly all varie-
ties, though not in the same degree.

CLASS IV.

Varieties of pears scarcely entitled to a place on
tho select list, and too good to be omitted. Some are
very popular and valuable in certain localities; others are
new, or comparatively new, and promising. This list
might have been greatly extended.

Abbott. — Medium, pyriform;- yellowish, shaded with
red; white, granular, juicy, buttery, melting. — Septem-
ber. Rhode Island.

Adams. — Large, obovate, pyriform; greenish yellow,
russet and red cheek ; very juicy, melting, vinous. — Sep-
tember. Massachusetts.

Andrews. — Rather large, pyriform; yellowish green,
with a dull red cheek ; juicy, melting, fine, vinous flavor.
— September. Massachusetts.

Andre DcsportCS. — Medium, roundish, pyriform ; green-
ish yellow, bronzed in sun ; melting, fine, juicy, sugary. —
July. France — new.

ISeurrc d'Amanlis. — Large, roundish ; dull yellow
green, reddish brown cheek ; flesh yellowish, coarse, but-
tery, melting ; unreliable in quality, good old market
sort. — September.

Beurrtf d'Allgletem, — Medium, pyriform ; dull green,
netted with russet ; buttery, melting, juicy, pleasant. —
September. France. New.

d'Albret. — Medium, long pyriform; yellow,

PEAKS. 3T1

with cinnamon russet ; very juicy, buttery, melting,
vinous. — October. An excellent fruit.

Brown. — Large, obovate, oblong; yellowish
green, with reddish brown and russet ; flesh white, melt-
ing, buttery, extremely juicy, sub -acid. — September.
France. A fine old sort, often excellent, but too variable.

Beurrtf Durand. — Medium, oblong, pyriform ; yellow,
with splashes of red in the sun ; fine, melting, sugary,
vinous. — September. France.

Beurrtf Golden Of Bilboa. — Medium, obovate, pyri-
form ; yellow, slight russet ; very buttery, melting, fine-
grained, vinous. — September. Spain.

Beurrtf Mauxion, — Medium, roundish, pyriform; yel-
low russet, with a red cheek ; fine, buttery, melting, juicy,
sugary, vinous, perfumed. — September. Belgium.

Beurrtf del'Assomption, — Large, short pyriform ; lemon
yellow, some russet; fine, melting, juicy, vinous, per-
fumed. — August. France. Tree a vigorous grower; a
promising new sort.

Beurre" Moire, — Large, oblong, pyriform; greenish
yellow, tinge of red in sun ; granular, buttery, melting,
fine, rich, perfumed. October. France.

Bcrgamotte d'Espertfn, — Origin France. Medium size,
roundish, flattened, or flat ; skin thick, rough ; greenish
yellow, russet patches ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, juicy,
rich. Tree healthy, vigorous, and productive.

Bezi Esperen. — Large, roundish, pyriform; dull yel-
low, some russet ; juicy, sprightly, vinous. — October.
France.

Bezi de Montigny (COMPTESSE DE Lux AT, etc.). — Me-
dium size, roundish, obovate; yellowish green; flesh
melting, half-buttery, juicy, sweet, musky. — Mid- Autumn.
Tree vigorous, healthy, productive.

372 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Black Worcester, — Largo, pyrifbrm; green, nearly
covered with russet, coarse; valued for cooking. — Winter.

77 O

Bonne Sophia* — Medium, acute, pyriform ; pale yellow,
shade of crimson, nettings of russet ; juicy, fine, melting,
sweet, perfumed. — October. France. New and prom-
ising.

Bonne de PuitS d'Ansault. — Medium, roundish ;
bronzed yellow ; slightly gritty, melting, juicy, sugary,
musky, agreeable, of fine quality. — September. France.

Caen de France. — Medium, short pyriform ; yellow,
with dull russet ; fine-grained, juicy, melting, vinous,
aromatic. — December, February. France. A variety of
great excellence.

Church, — Below medium, flattened ; greenish yellow;
very buttery, melting, rich, sweet, perfumed. — September.

Comte de Flandre, — Large, long, pyriform; yellow-
ish russet ; very buttery, melting, juicy, rich, sweet. —
October. Belgium.

Doctor Lindley, — Medium, obovate, pyriform ; yellow,
with slight russet ; melting, sweet, perfumed. — Novem-
ber, December. — France. New and promising.

Duchess d'Orleans (ST. NICHOLAS, etc.). — Origin
France. Above medium size, long, pyriform ; yellowish
green, with sometimes a red cheek; flesh melting, juicy,
slightly aromatic. — Early Autumn. Tree an upright,
moderate gVower, and a good bearer; a handsome and
excellent amateur sort.

Duchess Precoce, — Large, pyriform ; greenish yellow,
becoming clear yellow ; melting, juicy, sprightly, although
not rich. — September. France. New and promising.

Due de Brabant (B. DE WATERLOO, FONDANTE DES
CHARNEUSE). — Origin Belgium. Large, pyriform ; green-
ish, with crimson red in the sun ; flesh very juicy, but-
tery, melting, vinous. — Mid to late Autumn. Tree vigor-
ous, hardy, and productive.

PEAKS. 873

Dlichesse dc Bordeaux, — Medium, roundish, pyriform ;
yellow, with considerable russet ; moderately juicy, sweet,
pleasant, scarcely melting. — January. France.

Edmonds* — Origin Monroe County, N". Y. Large,
roundish, pyriform, with a very long stalk ; yellow, or
straw color, with occasionally bronzed red in the sun ;
flesh fine-grained, buttery, melting, sweet, with a peculiar
and very agreeable aroma ; quality variable, especially on
young trees. — Early Autumn. Tree a remarkably strong,
upright grower, and an abundant bearer.

General Tottleben, — Medium to large, obtuse, pyri-
form ; greenish yellow, patched with russet ; whitish yel-
low, a little coarse, melting, juicy, slightly aromatic. —
October. Belgium.

General Taylor (HOMEWOOD). — Medium, obtuse, pyri-
form; yellow, crimson in sun, nettings and patches
of russet ; a little coarse, juicy, melting, sweet. — October.
Maryland.

Gratioli Of Jersey. — Medium, roundish, pyriform;
greenish yellow, netted and patched with russet; juicy,
rich, melting, vinous. — September. Isle of Jersey.

Henry the Fourth, — Below medium, roundish, pyri-
form ; greenish yellow, with gray specks ; not fine-
grained, juicy, melting, perfumed. — September. France.
An old variety.

Henri Desportes* — Large, pyriform ; yellowish green ;
juicy, melting, sweet. August. Tree a moderate grow-
er.— France. New.

Jalousie de Fontenay Vendee, — Origin France. Me-
dium size, long, pyriform ; dull yellow and green, a red
cheek and some russet ; flesh white, melting, buttery,
rich. — Mid-Autumn. Tree a vigorous grower and early
and abundant bearer.

Jules Bivort, — Medium to large, pyriform ; yellowish,
with more or less russet ; very juicy, buttery, sweet, melt-
ing, vinous. — October.

374 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

. — Large, obtuse, pyriform ; greenish yel-
low; rather coarse, juicy, buttery, melting, sweet. — Sep-
tember. Pennsylvania.

Livingston Virgalieu, — Medium, roundish ; greenish
yellow ; whitish, juicy, sweet, pleasant. — September.
Pennsylvania.

Madam Eliza. — Large, acute, pyriform ; light yellow,
traces of russet ; fine, juicy, melting, sweet, perfumed. —
October. Tree a good grower. Belgium.

Maurice Desportes, — Medium to large, acute pyri-
form ; dull yellow, with russet ; fine-grained, melting,
sweet. — October. Tree a vigorous grower and produc-
tive. France. New.

Marie Louise. — Large, long pyriform; yellow, mottled
with russet ; very buttery, melting, vinous, sweet. — Octo-
ber. Belgium. A fine, old sort, but variable in some
localities.

Marie Louise d'Uccles, — Above medium, roundish,
pyriform ; yellow, shaded with brown in sun, netted and
patched with russet; juicy, melting, vinous, a little
astringent. — September. Belgium. New.

Mount Vernon. — Medium or above, roundish, pyriform ;
russet 011 yellow, brown red in sun ; granulated, juicy,
melting, slightly vinous, peculiar flavor. — November.
Massachusetts. A promising, new American sort.

Nantais (BEURRE DE NANTES). — Large, long, pyriform ;
greenish yellow, with a red cheek; melting, juicy, sweet,
pleasantly perfumed. — October. France.

Nouveau Poitean. — Origin Belgium. Large, pyriform ;
greenish, with patches and dots of russet ; flesh whitish,
buttery, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous. — Late Autumn.
Tree a very vigorous, upright grower, and productive ; a
beautiful tree and a noble fruit, but quality variable, often
pasty and insipid.

PEARS. 375

OswegO Beurrtf. — Origin New York. Medium, round-
ish, flattened ; yellowish green, with thin russet until fully
ripe, then fine, yellow russet ; flesh melting, buttery, juicy,
vinous, aromatic. — Mid to late Autumn. Tree erect,
moderately vigorous, and a great bearer even when young,
sometimes cracks.

Ott. — Small, roundish ; light yellow ; melting, sugary,
aromatic. — August. Pennsylvania.

Platt. — Medium, roundish, flattened ; pale yellow, con-
siderable russet ; buttery, juicy, half-melting, pleasant. —
October. New York.

Petite Marguerite,— Medium, obovate; greenish yel-
low; sweet, juicy, vinous. — August. France. New and
promising.

Pitmaston Duchess,— Large, pyriform ; yellow, with
patches of cinnamon russet ; melting, juicy, rich, delicate
perfume. — October and November. New and promising.

Pius the 9th, — Above medium, roundish, long, pyri-
form; yellow, considerable russet; juicy, a little firm,
melting, brisk, vinous. October. Belgium. Variable.

Rapelje'S Seedling. — Medium, obovate to pyriform;
yellowish, mostly covered with gray russet ; juicy, some-
what granular, melting, sweet, vinous. — September. Long
Island. An excellent fruit.

Rutter, — Medium to large, roundish ; greenish yellow,
considerable russet ; moderately juicy, a little gritty, al-
most melting, sweet. — October. Pennsylvania. New and
promising.

St, Ghislain, — Medium, pyriform ; clear, pale yellow ;
buttery, juicy, sprightly, rich. — October. Belgium. A
fine, old sort, but rather superseded by others of same
season larger and more attractive.

Souvenir du Congres, — Large ; beautiful yellow, with

376 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

bright red in the sun ; melting, juicy, musky. — Septem-
ber. France. New and highly commended abroad.

Williams d'Hiver, — Large, pyriform; greenish yellow,
firm ; moderately juicy, vinous, slightly sweet. — January.
France. This purports to be a winter Bartlett, and has
been highly commended.

SELECT ASSORTMENTS OP PEARS.

To aid the inexperienced amateur in making up small
assortments :

TWELVE VARIETIES ON PEAR STOCKS. — Bartlett,
Clapp's Favorite, Doyenne d'Ete, Beurre Bosc, Lawrence,
Beurre d'Anjou, Seckel, Winter Nelis, Dana's Hovey,
Sheldon, Paradise d'Automne, Doyenne Boussock.

TWELVE VARIETIES ON QUINCE STOCKS. — Beurre d'An-
jou, Duchess d'Angouleme, Louise Bonne de Jersey,
Ho well, Urbaniste, White Doyenne (where it succeeds),
Vicar of Winkfield, Doyenne d'Alen9on, Brandywine,
Tyson, Kostiezer, Josephine de Malines.

TWENTY-FIVE VARIETIES FOR THE GARDEN ON QUINCE.
— Bartlett, Rostiezer, Tyson, Beurre d'Anjou, Beurre Diel,
Belle Lucrative, Beurre d'Amanlis, Duchess d'Angouleme,
Doyenne White (where it succeeds), Doyenne Gray,
Louise Bonne de Jersey, Seckel, Onondaga, Urbaniste,
Beurre Easter, Beurre Gris d'Hiver, Glout Morceau,
Vicar of Winkfield, Josephine de Malines, Uvedale's St.
Germain, Beurre Superfin, Beurre Hardy, Howell,
Brandywine, Doyenne d'Alen9on.

FOR PROFIT ON QUINCE STOCK. — Duchess d'Angou-
leme, Louise Bonne de Jersey, Beurre d'Anjou, Howell,
and White Doyenne where it succeeds.

QUINCES. 377

SECTION 3.— QUINCES.

Apple-Shaped or Orange. — Large, roundish, with a
short neck ; of a bright golden yellow color ; tree has
rather slender shoots and oval leaves ; very productive.
This is the variety most extensively cultivated for the
fruit. — Ripe in October.

Pear-Shaped. — This has generally more of a pyriform
shape than the preceding ; the fruit is larger, the tree
stronger.

Portugal* — The fruit of this is more oblong than the
preceding, of a lighter color and better quality ; the
shoots are stouter, and the leaves thicker and broader ;
usually propagated by budding or grafting. A week or
two later than the Apple. A shy bearer.

Angers. — The strongest grower of all the quinces, and
the best for pear stocks. The fruit is much like the
orange in appearance ; later, keeps longer. The tree
does not bear as young, but when once it reaches matu-
rity is a good, regular bearer.

Rea's Seedling (REA'S MAMMOTH, VAN SLYKE). Native
of Greene County, N. Y. — A magnificent fruit, averaging
mucU larger than the Apple-shaped or Orange, resembles
it in appearance, and by some preferred for culinary
purposes.

Chinese i — Usually cultivated for ornament. Quite dif-
ferent in appearance from the others. The leaves are
glossy, sharply and beautifully toothed ; the fruit is large,
oblong, bright yellow, and keeps until spring ; little used.
The flowers are large and showy, with the fragrance of
the violet; worked on the other sorts; rather tender, re"
quiring a sheltered situation. A very tardy bearer.

Japan. — This is very distinct from all the others ; very
bushy, thorny, and hardy. There are several varieties,
all of which may be reckoned among the most beautiful

378 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

of all our hardy spring flowering shrubs. Fruit about as
large as a chicken's egg ; unfit for use.

SECOND DIVISION.— STONE FRUITS— APRICOTS, CHER-
RIES, PEACHES, NECTARINES, AND PLUMS.

SECTION 4. — SELECT APRICOTS.

Alberge de Montgamet (MOXTGAMET).— Medium size ;
pale yellow, with tinge of red in the sun ; flesh yellowish,
adhering to the stone ; juicy, perfumed, excellent. The
tree is a hardy, fine grower. — Last of July.

Beauge. — Resembles Moorpark, but ripens later.

Blenheim (SHIPLEY). — Medium size, oval ; orange yel-
low ; flesh juicy, moderately rich. — Ripens eight or ten
days before Moorpark.

Breda* — Small, round, dull orange, marked witli red in
the sun, flesh orange-colored, juicy, rich and vinous ; parts
from the stone, kernel sweet, tree hardy, robust, and pro-
lific.— End of July and beginning of August.

( anino Grosso. — Large ; orange color, becoming red in
the sun ; flesh reddish yellow, high-flavored. — Middle of
July. Tree vigorous, hardy.

Early Golden (Dusois). — Small; pale orange; flesh
orange, juicy and sweet ; kernel sweet ; tree very hardy
and productive. The original tree at Fishkill is said to
have yielded 890 worth of fruit in one season. — Begin-
ning of July.

Early Moorpark. — Resembles Moorpark, but ripens
earlier. Medium size, roundish, oval ; yellow, mottled
with crimson in the sun.

APKICOTS. 379

HemskirkCt — A large English variety, much like Moor-
park, but ripens a little earlier. It is known by its stone
not being perforated, as is that of the Moorpark.

Kaislta* — A variety from Syria; requires a warm,
sheltered location ; medium size, roundish ; yellow, mot-
tled and tinged with red in the sun ; flesh tender, sugary,
high-flavored ; separating freely from the stone. — Last of
July.

Large Early, — Large ; orange, with a red cheek ; flesh
sweet, rich and excellent ; parts from the stone ; tree vig-
orous and productive. — Beginning of August.

Moorpark. — One of the largest and finest apricots;
yellow, with a red cheek; flesh orange, sweet, juicy and
rich ; parts from the stone ; growth rather slow, but stout
and short-jointed ; very productive.

Orange, — Medium size; orange, with a ruddy cheek;
flesh rather dry, requires ripening in the house ; adheres
slightly to the stone. — End of July.

Peach, — A very large, handsome, and excellent variety,
quite similar to the Moorpark ; the shoots are not so short-
jointed, and the fruit a degree larger.

Red Masculine (EARLY MASCULINE, etc.). — Small, near-
ly round; well-marked suture one side; bright yellow,
tinged with deep orange, and spotted with dark red ;
flesh juicy, musky, pleasant; the earliest to ripen. — Early
in July. Tree hardy and a good bearer.

Saint Ambroise, — Large ; deep yellow, reddish next the
sun; flesh juicy, rich and sweet. — Middle of August.

Sardinian* — Small ; white, with a red cheek ; moder-
ately juicy. — Very early in July. Tree productive.

Turkey, — Medium to large, nearly round ; deep yellow,
mottled with orange in sun ; flesh pale yellow, firm, juicy,
excellent. — Middle August.

380 SELECT VARIETIES OF F11UITS.
SECTION 5. — SELECT CHERRIES.
CLASS I. HEART CHERRIES.

Fruit heart-shaped, with tender, sweet flesh. Trees of
rapid growth, with large, soft-drooping leaves.

Belle d'Orleans, — Origin France. Medium size, round-
ish, heart-shape ; pale yellow, partially covered with red ;
flesh very tender, juicy, sweet and delicious. — Early in
June, or immediately after Early Purple Guigne. Tree a
fine grower and an abundant bearer ; one of the finest
early varieties.

Black Eagle. — Origin England. Rather above medium
size, obtuse, heart-shape ; deep purplish black ; flesh deep
purple, tender, with a rich, high-flavored juice. — Early in
July, or just after Black Tartarian. Tree a strong grow-
er, a moderate bearer while young, productive when old.

Black Tartarian. — Origin Russia. Very large, heart-
shape, uneven on the surface ; purplish black ; flesh half-
tender, very juicy, mild, delicious. — Last of June. Tree
very vigorous, upright, very productive ; one of the most
popular and productive varieties in all parts of the coun-
try ; always commands the highest price in market.

Coe'S Transparent. — Origin Connecticut. Medium
size, round ; skin glossy, pale amber, mottled and spotted
with carnelian red ; flesh very tender, juicy, sweet and
delicate. — Middle to last of June. Tree a vigorous grow-
er, forming a handsome, round head, very productive ;
this is one of the best of dessert cherries, but too tender
for marketing.

Delicate* — Origin Ohio. Rather above medium, round-
ish ; clear amber yellow, with a rich, bright red in sun ex-
posure ; flesh very tender, juicy, sweet, with a rich, high
flavor. — Last of June. Tree a thrifty, spreading grower,
productive ; most valuable for family use.

CHERRIES. 381

Downer's Late Red. — Origin Massachusetts. Medium,
roundish ; clear, lively red, mottled with amber ; flesh
tender, juicy, sprightly, a little bitter unless fully ripe,
when it is sweet and fine. — Early to middle July. Tree
very hardy, a fine, erect grower, very productive ; the
fruit is borne in clusters, and will hang for a considerable
time on the tree.

Early Purple Guigne. — Medium size, roundish, heart-
shape ; dark red, purplish when mature; flesh purple,
juicy, tender, rich and sweet. — Early in June. Tree a
free but slender grower while young, hardy, and makes a
fine, spreading, open head, bearing very abundantly ; it is
indispensable as an early variety, and is found highly
profitable as a market sort in some localities.

Elton* — Origin England. Large, heart-shape, pointed ;
glossy pale yellow, shaded, mottled and streaked with red
in the sun ; flesh somewhat firm, nearly tender when fully
ripe, juicy, sweet, rich, high flavor. — Middle to last of
June. Tree vigorous, spreading, irregular in growth, a
good bearer ; one of the best of the large, light-colored
cherries.

Governor Wood, — Origin Ohio. Large, roundish,
heart-shape ; light, rich yellow, shaded and marbled with
red ; flesh almost tender, juicy, sweet, with a rich, deli-
cious flavor. — Middle to last of June. Tree a fine grower,
forming a round, half-spreading head, very productive ;
liable to overbear, which might be remedied by judicious
pruning.

Knight's Early Black. — Origin England. Large, heart-
shape ; deep purple, almost black ; flesh purple, tender,
juicy, sweet and rich, high flavor. — Middle to last of
June. Tree a spreading, stocky growrer, and productive.

Ohio Beauty. — Origin Ohio. Large, obtuse, heart-
shape ; pale yellow, mostly overspread with clear, bright
red ; flesh quite tender, juicy, brisk, delicious. — Middle

382 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

of June. Tree a vigorous, rather spreading grower, very-
productive, and hardy; ranks among the best of the light-
colored varieties.

Wilkinson. — Medium, heart-shape ; deep red, almost
purplish black ; flesh purplish, tender, juicy, pleasant. —
Middle July. Tree vigorous, upright, productive ; valued
because of late ripening.

CLAS3 II. 3IGAKREAU CHERRIES.

These are chiefly distinguished from the preceding
class by their firmer flesh. Their growth is vigorous,
branches spreading, and foliage luxuriant, soft, and droop-
ing.

Bigarreail or Yellow Spanish, — Large, obtuse, heart-
shape ; beautiful waxen yellow, with bright red cheek in
the sun ; flesh quite firm, pale ye.llow, juicy, rich, sweet
and delicious flavor. — Last of June. Tree a vigorous,
stocky grower, making a fine, round head, very produc-
tive ; an old variety of the largest size and best quality.

Bllttner's YcllOW, — Origin Germany. Medium size,
roundish ; pale yellow ; flesh crisp, juicy, sweet. Last of
July. Tree a vigorous grower, moderately productive ;
the peculiar color of this cherry makes it attractive.

Cleveland Bigarreau, — Origin Ohio. Large, round,
heart-shape ; bright, clear red on yellow ; flesh half-firm,
juicy, sweet and rich. — Last of June. Tree a fine grower,
spreading and productive.

Gridley OF Apple Cherry. — Origin Massachusetts. Me-
dium, roundish ; dark reddish brown, black when fully
ripe; flesh very firm, not juicy or high-flavored. — Middle
July. Tree hardy, vigorous, and productive ; a capital
market variety because of its Litcricss and firmness.

MOBStreuSC de Ulezel (GREAT BIGARREAU). — Origin
France. Large or very large, obtuse, heart-shape, uneven

CIIEKKIES. 383

surface; dark red, almost black at maturity; flesh firm,
juicy, well-flavored. — Early to Middle July. Tree yery
vigorous, forming a large,, wide, open, spreading head,
productive and profitable.

Napoleon Bigarreau (" ROYAL ANN " in California and
Oregon). — Very large, heart-shaped ; pale yellow, dotted
and spotted with deep red and dark crimson ; flesh very
firm, juicy, fine flavor. — Early July. Tree a vigorous
grower and very productive.

Osceola. — Origin Ohio. Large, heart-shape ; dark red,
almost black ; flesh juicy, tender, sweet, excellent. — Last
of June. Tree a moderate, healthy grower, and a good
bearer.

Pontiac* — Origin Ohio. Large, obtuse, heart-shape,
sides compressed ; dark purplish red, almost black when
fully ripe ; flesh half-tender, juicy, sweet, rich, excellent.
— Last of June. Tree vigorous, upright, round-headed,
very productive ; a valuable orchard or table sort.

Red Jacket. — Origin Ohio. Large to very large, reg-
ular, obtuse, heart shape ; amber yellow, mostly covered
with light red; flesh half -tender, juicy, sweet, good
flavor. — Middle July. Tree a free, healthy grower, form-
ing a large, spreading head, very productive ; ripens late,
and is very profitable for market.

Rockport Bigarreail. — Origin Ohio. Large, round-
ish, obtuse, heart-shape ; amber yellow, shaded and most-
ly covered with bright red; flesh half- tender, juicy,
sweet, rich, excellent. — Middle of June. Tree a very
erect, vigorous grower, forming a remarkably beautiful,
upright head, and very productive.

Tradescant's Black Heart (ELKHOEN). — Origin Eu-
rope. Yery large, heart-shaped ; deep purple, almost
black; flesh firm, moderately juicy, purplish, sweet. —
Middle to end of July. Tree vigorous, upright, with a

384 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

peculiar gray bark, a great bearer, and valuable for mar-
ket or garden.

CLASS III. — DUKE AND MORELLO CHERRIES.

These two classes of cherries arc very distinct from
the preceding. The trees are of smaller size and grow
slowly ; the leaves are thicker and more erect, and of a
deeper green. The fruit is generally round, and in color
varying from light red, like Belle de Choisy, to dark
brown, like Mayduke or Morello.

The Dukes have stout, erect branches usually, and some
of them, like Belle de Choisy and Reine Hortense, quite
sweet, whilst the Morellos have slender, spreading
branches, and acid fruit invariably. These two classes
are peculiarly appropriate for. dwarfs and pyramids, on
the Mahaleb stock, and their hardiness renders them wTell
worthy of attention in localities where the Hearts and
Bigarreaus arc too tender.

Belle de Choisy • — Origin France. Medium size, round ;
skin thin, translucent; pale amber color, mottled with
yellowish and bright carnelian red; flesh very tender,
amber- colored, melting, juicy, sweet. — Last of June.
Tree a healthy grower, makes a handsome pyramid on
the Mahaleb, a regular but moderate bearer; an excellent
dessert sort, valued for garden culture.

Belle Magnifique* — Large, roundish, bright, rich red ;
flesh juicy, tender, rich, rather acid until fully ripe, when
it is fine for the table and excellent for cooking. — Last of
July. Tree very hardy and healthy, a moderate grower,
abundant bearer, fine as a dwarf or pyramid, on mahaleb.

Carnation. — Large, round ; yellowish white, mottled
and marbled with red ; flesh tender, juicy, rich, a little
acid unless fully ripe, when it is a rich, pleasant sub-acid.
Middle to last of July. Tree a good grower, with a rather
low, spreading habit ; a moderate, regular bearer.

CHEKKIES. 385

Donna Maria . — Medium size, roundish ; dark, clear red ;
flesh tender, juicy, rich acid. — Middle July. Tree a
healthy grower, hardy, forming a small, round-headed
tree, that comes early into bearing and bears profusely ; a
valuable and profitable variety for market or cooking.

Early Richmond,— Small to medium, roundish ; borne
in pairs, and usually recognized by the calyx remaining
on the stem next the fruit; bright, clear red; brisk, rich
acid. — Early to last of June. Tree hardy, healthy, vigor-
ous, forming a medium-sized tree, with long, half-pendent
shoots, very productive, valuable and profitable.

Late Duke, — Large, heart-shape, flattened; rich, clear,
rather dark red ; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly sub-acid.
— Ripens gradually and hangs a long time or until last of
July. Tree a vigorous grower for its class, and a good
bearer; makes a fine dwarf or pyramid.

Louis Philippe, — Origin France. Large, roundish, reg-
ular ; dark, almost purplish-black red ; flesh red, tender,
juicy, sprightly, mild acid, excellent. — Middle to last of
July. Tree a vigorous grower, making a large tree for
its class, with a handsome, round, spreading head, very
productive; a very valuable sort for dessert, canning,
cooking, or market.

May Duke. — Large, roundish ; dark, lively, rich red;
flesh tender, very juicy, reddish, rich, and excellent sub-
acid. — Middle of June. Tree hardy, vigorous, and pro-
ductive, the fruit ripening gradually in succession ; makes
fine dwarfs or pyramids.

MorellO (English). — Large, roundish ; dark red, nearly
black ; flesh dark purplish red, tender, juicy, sub-acid. —
Late July. Tree a small, healthy, but slender grower,
forming a pretty round head as a standard, and a fine
bush as a dwarf.

Reine Hor tense. — Origin France. Large to very
large, roundish • bright, clear red, marbled and mottled
17

SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

in yellow ; flesh tender, juicy, slightly sub-acid, delicious.
— Middle to last of July. Tree a healthy, vigorous,
handsome grower, and a moderate, even, regular bearer.

Royal Duke. — Large, roundish, oblong ; rich, dark red
at maturity ; flesh reddish, tender, juicy, sub-acid. —
Last of June. Tree an upright, compact grower, with
branches stouter than the average of its class, an even
but moderate bearer.

SMALL SELECT LISTS.

Six for the Garden. — Rockport, Coe's Transparent,
Black Tartarian, Black Hawk, Late Duke, and Louis
Philippe.

For the Market Orchard. — Early Purple Guigne,
Gridley, Napoleon, Red Jacket, Black Tartarian, Pontiac,
Monstreuse de Mezel, Early Richmond.

SECTION 6. — SELECT NECTARINES.

The nectarine tree differs in nothing from a peach, and
the fruit only in being smooth-skinned. It is peculiarly
liable to be destroyed by the curculio. The same pre-
ventive remedy against curculio must be applied as with
the plum.

Boston. — Origin Massachusetts. Fruit large, roundish,
oval ; bright yellow, with a deep red and mottled cheek ;
flesh yellow, sweet, pleasant, peculiar flavor. — Early in
September. Freestone. Tree hardy and productive.

Downton. — Origin England. Large, roundish, oval ;
pale green, with a violet, red cheek ; flesh greenish white,
melting, juicy, sweet, rich and high flavored. — Last of
August. Freestone.

Early Violet (VIOLETTE HATIVE). — Rather large, round-
ish ; pale yellow green, nearly covered with violet purple

NECTARINES. 387

red; flesh whitish, rays of red at stone, melting, juicy,
rich and high flavor. — Last of August. Freestone.

Early Newington (LUCOMBE'S BLACK, etc.). — Origin
England. Large, roundish, ovate, swollen point at apex ;
pale green, nearly covered, mottled and marbled with red,
thin bloom ; flesh greenish white, red at stone ; juicy,
sugary, rich, excellent. — Early September. Clingstone.

Elruge. — Origin England. Medium size, roundish,
oval ; greenish, mostly covered with violet red, deep red
in the sun ; flesh slightly stained with red at the stone,
very juicy, melting, with a rich, fine flavor. — Early Sep-
tember. Freestone. This variety is widely grown and
generally successful.

Hardwicke'S Seedling. — Origin England. Fruit very
large, roundish, or roundish oval, swollen point at apex ;
pale yellow, with a dark, violet red cheek; flesh pale
green, tinged with red at the stone, juicy, melting, rich.
— Last of August. Freestone. Tree very hardy and ex-
cellent bearer.

Hunt's Tawny. — Origin England. Fruit medium size ;
roundish, narrowing to the apex, swollen point, one side
enlarged ; pale orange, with a deep red cheek in the sun ;
flesh orange, melting, juicy, stained with red at stone. —
Middle of August. Freestone. A hardy tree, early and
productive.

Pitmaston Orange* — Origin England. Large, round-
ish, ovate, swollen point ; rich orange yellow, red,
bronzed in stm ; flesh orange yellow, red at the stone,
juicy, excellent. — Last August or early September. Free-
stone.

Red Roman. — Large, roundish, a little flattened ;
greenish yellow, with a brownish red cheek ; flesh firm,
greenish yellow, red at stone, juicy, rich, vinous. — Early
September. Clingstone. Tree healthy and productive;
an old, foreign variety of great value.

388 SELECT VARIETIES OP FKUITS.

Rivers' Orange,— Originated by Thomas Rivers, Eng-
land. Much like its parent, Pitmaston Orange, but ripen-
ing later. Tree a great bearer.

Stan wick* — Origin England, where it was grown from
a stone brought from Syria. Large, or above medium,
roundish oval ; greenish white, much covered and shaded
with violet red, when grown in the sun ; flesh white,
melting, rich, juicy, sweet. — Middle September. Compar-
atively a new sort, of great promise in the South, and
suited to warm, sheltered locations.

Victoria. — Origin England. Fruit resembles Stanwick,
except that it ripens a month earlier. It originated witli
Thomas Rivers, England, from seed of Early Violet, fer-
tilized by Stanwick, and is as yet untested in this
country.

NOTE. — Mr. Rivers lias recently originated many new
varieties of Nectarines, some of which promise to be
valuable.

SECTION 7. — SELECT PEACHES.

Fl. S. DENOTES SMALL FLOWEUS ; gl. GLANDS ; glob. GLOBOSE ; AND
rCU. RENIFOKM ; f. FREESTONE ; C. CLINGSTONE.

Bellegarde (EARLY ROYAL GEORGE, etc.). — Origin
France. Gl. glob., fl. small. Fruit large, round, suture
shallow; pale yellow green, with a rich, purplish red
cheek ; flesh marked with red at the stone, very melting,
juicy, rich, and high flavored. — Last of August. F. An
old variety, but one of the handsomest and best.

Bergen'S Yellow, — American Origin. Gl. ren., fl. s.
Fruit large, globular; deep orange, with red; flesh yel-
low, melting, juicy, rich, luscious. — Early September. F.
A fine peach, but only an indifferent bearer.

Cole's Early Red. — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit
medium size, roundish ; pale yellow, nearly covered with

PEACHES. 389

red ; flesh melting, juicy, rich, sprightly. — Middle August.
A vigorous tree, hardy, abundant "bearer, a profitable
market sort.

Columbia (INDIAN PEACH). — American. Gl. ren., fl. s.
Fruit medium to large, roundish, with distinct suture ;
dull yellowish red, with streaks of dark red; flesh yellow,
rich, juicy, excellent. — September. F. A profitable mar-
ket sort. Tree hardy, a good grower and bearer ; exten-
sively grown both in orchard and garden.

Cooledge's Favorite, — American. Gl.glob.,fl. s. Fruit
large, roundish, slightly largest one side ; clear white,
with a fine, crimson red cheek ; flesh very melting, juicy,
rich, sweet, high flavor. — Middle August. F. Tree vig-
orous, healthy, very productive ; an extremely valuable,
hardy, and profitable variety.

Crawford's Early, — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit
very large, roundish, oblong, suture distinct, swollen
point at apex ; yellow, with red cheek ; flesh yellow,
melting, rich, sweet, excellent. — Early September. F. Tree
very vigorous grower, abundant bearer, widely grown
and highly esteemed either for orchard or garden.

Crawford's Lates — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit
very large, roundish, with shallow suture ; yellow, with a
fine, dark red cheek ; flesh deep yellow, red at the stone,
juicy, melting, rich, vinous, excellent. — Middle to last of
September. F. Tree vigorous, hardy, productive, highly
valued for orchard or garden.

Druid Hill. — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit large,
roundish, swollen point distinct ; greenish white, clouded
with red in the sun ; flesh greenish white, purplish red at
stone, very juicy, melting, rich, vinous. — Last of Septem-
ber, early October. F. Tree very vigorous, abundant
bearer, and profitable South and South-west ; it does not
always ripen well in this section.

390 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Early Newington Freestone,— GI. glob., fl. s. Fruit
large or above medium, round, suture distinct ; pale yel-
lowish white, dotted and shaded with red in the sun;
flesh white, red at stone, to which it partially adheres
unless fully ripe, melting, juicy, rich, vinous. — Middle
August. Tree hardy, moderate bearer.

Early Tillotson. — American. Leaves serrated without
glands, fl. s. Fruit medium to large ; pale yellowish
white, considerable red in the sun ; flesh molting, whitish,
red at stone, very juicy, rich, and excellent. — Middle
August. F. Tree a slow grower, mildews badly at the
North, but South it is one of the best and most profitable
sorts.

Early York (SERRATE EARLY YORK). — Leaves serrated
without glands, flowers large ; fruit medium size, round-
ish, slightly ovate ; pale red on greenish white ground,
dark red in the sun ; flesh greenish white, very tender,
melting, juicy, sprightly, rich, excellent. — Middle of
August. Tree a good, fair grower, prolific ; one of the
earliest and best for orchard or garden.

Freeman. — Comparatively a new variety, originated at
South Pass, 111., where it is esteemed, on account of late
maturity, as a market sort ; gl. glob. Fruit large, round-
ish ; yellow, with rich red cheek in the sun ; flesh yel-
low, red next the stone, juicy, sweet, rich. — Middle Octo-
ber. F.

George the Fourth, — Believed to be American. Gl.
glob., fl. s. Fruit large, round, deep suture, one side en-
larged ; pale yellowish white, rich, dark red cheek in sun ;
flesh tinted with red at the stone, melting, juicy, very
rich and delicious. — Last of August. F. Tree vigorous,
hardy, and productive ; one of the best in quality, and
successful in almost every locality.

Grosse Mlgnonne,— Gl glob., fl. large. Fruit large,
roundish, depressed, hollow suture at apex ; greenish

PEACHES. 391

yellow, mottled with red, purplish red cheek ; flesh white,
marked with red at stone, melting:, juicy, very rich, high,
vinous flavor. — Middle August. F. Tree a free grower,
good bearer ; in quality this peach has no superior, and is
everywhere esteemed.

Haines' Early. — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Medium
size, round, flattened at apex, one side enlarged ; pale
white, nearly covered with red; flesh greenish white,
very juicy, 'melting, sweet, fine flavor.— Early August. F.
Tree a fine grower, hardy and productive, valued highly
for the orchard.

Male's Early,— American. Gl. glob., fl. large. Fruit
medium, nearly round ; greenish, mostly covered with
red ; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich, sweet. — Last of
July. F. Tree very hardy, a vigorous grower and
abundant bearer ; it is the earliest ripening good peach,
but is liable to rot in some localities ; where it does not, it
is one of the most profitable.

Heath Cling, — American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit very
large, oblong, roundish, suture distinct, swollen point at
apex ; skin whitish, with blush or red tinge in the sun ;
flesh greenish white, very tender, melting, juicy, rich, and
of the highest flavor, adheres closely to the stone. — Octo-
ber. Tree very hardy, vigorous, and productive. This
is one of the best and most popular varieties in all the
South and South-west. It does not always ripen well at
the North, but may be gathered and kept for weeks. It
is well suited to espalier training.

Hy Slop's Cling. — American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit large,
roundish, inclining to oval ; pale white, with a rich, red
cheek ; flesh very juicy, melting, vinous, rich, adheres
closely to the stone. — Early in October. Tree a good
grower, hardy and productive ; an excellent fruit, and
highly valued wherever grown.

Jacques' Rareripe.— American. Gl. ren.,fl. s. Fruit

392 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

large, roundish, compressed ; dark, rich yellow, mostly
covered with dull red ; flesh yellow, red at the stone,
juicy, slightly sub-acid. — Middle September. F. A
popular and profitable peach in all the New England and
Northern States.

Kenrick'S Heath (HEATH FREE). — American. Gl. ren.,
fl. s. Fruit very large, oblong, with a swollen point at
apex ; pale greenish white, with a purplish red cheek ;
flesh a little coarse ; greenish white, deep red at the stone ;
juicy, melting, pleasant sub-acid. — Middle September. F.
A hardy, vigorous, and productive variety, profitable, but
not of the highest quality.

La Grange* — American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit large,
roundish, oblong ; greenish white, some red in sun ; flesh
juicy, melting, very rich, sweet and high-flavored. — Last
of September. F. Tree a hardy, good grower and bear-
er, highly esteemed and profitable in New Jersey, Del-
aware, and the peach regions of the South-west.

Large Early York (HONEST JOHN). — American. Gl.
glob., fl. s. Fruit above medium, roundish; whitish, with
a clear, rich red cheek ; flesh almost white, fine-grained,
juicy, rich, mild, excellent. — Last of August. F. Tree
vigorous, hardy, productive, and profitable either for
orchard or garden.

Late Admirable (TETON DE VEXUS). — Gl. glob., fl. s.
Very large, roundish, oval; deep, bold suture, small,
acute, swollen point at apex ; pale, yellowish green, with
a red cheek, very dark in sun ; flesh greenish white, red
at stone, juicy, melting, delicious. — Middle of September.
F. Tree vigorous and productive, hardy ; valuable and
profitable either for garden or orchard.

Lemon Cling* — American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Large, ob-
long, with a large projecting point at apex, like a lemon ;
fine yellow, with a rich brown red cheek ; flesh firm,
yellow, red at the stone, to which it firmly adheres ; rich,

PEACHES. 393

sprightly, vinous, sub-acid. — Last cf September. A na-
tive of South Carolina; the Lemon Clingstone is suc-
cessful and popular North and South. Many seedlings
have been grown from it, but none to supersede it.

Monstrueuse dc Douc, — Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit large,
roundish, suture distinct ; whitish, nearly covered with
red ; flesh red at the stone, juicy, melting, vinous. — Last
of September. F. Tree very vigorous and productive ; an
excellent variety from France, not as well known or ex-
tensively cultivated as it deserves.

Morris's White (MORRIS'S WHITE RARERIPE). — Amer-
ican. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit rather large ; greenish white,
with a creamy tint when fully ripe, and a slight tint of
purplish red on the sun-exposed side ; flesh white to the
stone, juicy, melting, sweet, and rich. — Middle of Septem-
ber. F. Tree a vigorous grower, healthy, moderate but
good bearer. A fruit highly valued for canning.

Noblesse* — Leaves serrated without glands, flowers
large. Fruit large, roundish, oblong ; pale green, with
clouded red in the sun ; flesh greenish white, juicy, melt-
ing, excellent. — Last of August. F. Tree healthy and
productive. A capital old English sort, highly esteemed
wherever grown.

Oldmixon Cling,— Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit large, round-
ish, oval, one side slightly enlarged ; yellowish white,
with a red cheek ; flesh pale white, exceedingly rich, melt-
ing, and juicy. — Middle of September. Tree healthy,
hardy, vigorous, and productive ; one of the best and most
profitable of the clingstones.

Oldinixon Freestone,— Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit large,
roundish, slightly oval, one side swollen ; pale yellowish
white, marbled with red, deep red in the sun ; flesh white,
red at stone, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous. — Early to
middle of September. F. Treo hardy, very productive ;
one of the most valuable of all the white-fleshed peaches,
either for orchard or garden.
17*

394 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Red Cheek MelocotODo — American. Gl. glob., fl. s.
Fruit large, roundish, oval, swollen point at apex ; yel-
low, with a deep red cheek ; flesh deep yellow, red at the
stone, juicy, melting, rich, vinous. — Middle September. F.
Tree very hardy and productive ; this is one of the most
reliable of all varieties, profitable for orchard or garden.
From it a large number of varieties have been grown,
few, however, sufficiently distinct or superior.

Salway, — Fruit large, roundish, one side enlarged,
suture distinct ; deep, with a marbled, rich, brownish red
cheek ; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, rich, vinous, sugary. —
Middle October. F. This is a new English variety, giv-
ing promise of great value as a late-ripening, showy,
market sort.

Scott?S Nonpareil. — Large, roundish ; yellow ; a seed-
ling from Red Cheek Melocoton, ripening a few days
later, and highly esteemed in New Jersey, where it orig-
inated as a valuable market variety.

Smock Freestone, — American. Gl. ren. Fruit large,
oval, compressed on its sides; orange yellow, mottled
with red, deep red cheek in sun ; flesh yellow, red at
stone, moderately juicy and rich, vinous. — Early October.
F. Tree a vigorous grower and productive; highly valued
as a late ripening, showy, and profitable market sort.

Snow, — American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit medium,
roundish; clear white; flesh white to the stone, juicy,
melting, sprightly, sweet, and rich. — Early September. F.
Tree hardy, very productive ; highly valued for preserv-
ing, canning, etc.

Stump the World, — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit
very large, roundish, oblong; creamy white, with a
bright, red cheek ; flesh white, juicy, high-flavored. — Last
of September. F. Tree vigorous and productive, es-
teemed in New Jersey, where it originated, as a profit-
able market variety.

PEACHES. 395

Sturtcvailt, — American. Fruit medium size, roundish ;
rich yellow, mostly covered with dark, rich red ; flesh
yellow, red at the stone, juicy, melting, sugary, rich, ex-
cellent.— Early September. F. Tree a good, healthy
grower, and an abundant bearer ; esteemed in Ohio, where
it originated as the best in quality of all the yellow-
fleshed varieties.

SurpaSSC Melocoton, — This is a seedling originated in
the grounds of Ellwanger & Barry, of large size, roundish,
oval ; rich yellow, with a red cheek ; flesh pale yellow,
nearly white, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous, excellent. —
Early September. F. Tree a strong grower, productive,
and promising to be a valuable market sort.

Susfjuchaniia* — American. Large, nearly round, suture
distinct ; yellow, with a beautiful, broad, red cheek ; flesh
yellow, sweet, rich, juicy, vinous. — Middle to last of Sep-
tember. F. Tree a fine grower, very popular in Penn-
sylvania.

Tippecanoe ('ling,— American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit
very large, nearly round, flattened slightly at sides ; yel-
low, with a fine, rich, red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy,
sweet, vinous. — Last September and early October. Tree
vigorous, productive ; a handsome peach of very good
quality, valued highly where known as a market sort.

Troth's Early. — American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Fruit
medium size, roundish, oval ; whitish, bright red in sun ;
flesh white, red at the stone, juicy, sweet. — Early in Au-
gust. F. Tree vigorous, very productive ; this variety
is extensively grown, and esteemed highly valuable as a
market orchard sort ; it is also fine for the orchard,
house, and the garden.

Ward's Late Free,— American. Gl. ren., fl. s. Fruit
rather large, roundish, slightly oval ; white, with a beau-
tiful red cheek ; flesh white, tinged with red at stone,
juicy, melting, sweet, delicious. — Late September. F.

396 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Tree vigorous and productive ; very valuable for orchard
or garden.

Wai bur ton Admirable. — English. Fl. s. Fruit large,
roundish ; greenish white, shaded with dark red in the sun ;
flesh white, stained red at the stone, melting, juicy, rich,
and sweet. — Last of September. F. Tree a good grower
and productive ; this variety, wherever it has been grown
in this country, has been found valuable.

Yellow Alberge (BARNARD'S YELLOW). — Gl. glob.,
fl. s. Fruit medium or above in size, roundish ; yellow,
with a deep, purplish red cheek ; flesh yellow, deep red at
stone, juicy, sweet, vinous, pleasant. — Early September.
F. Tree hardy, vigorous, and productive. This old
French peach holds a popular position as a reliable and
profitable variety, although only of second-rate quality ;
from it many seedlings have been grown, almost identical
with its parent.

Yellow Rareripe.— American. Gl. glob., fl. s. Large,
roundish ; orange yellow, a rich, red cheek, shaded off and
striped; flesh, deep yellow, red at the stone, melting,
juicy, vinous, excellent. — Last of August. F. Tree vig-
orous and productive; one of the best and most profitable
very early yellow-fleshed peaches grown.

SELECT GARDEN VARIETIES.

Hale's Early, Early York, Cooledge's Favorite, Oldmix-
on Freestone, Large Early York, George the Fourth,
Ward'b Late Freestone.

Varieties generally successful in New England, West-
ern New York, Ohio, and Michigan. — Cole's Early Red,
Columbia, Cooledge's Favorite, Crawford's Early, Craw-
ford's Late, George the Fourth, Jacques' Rareripe, Large
Early York, Late Admirable, Morris's White, Oldmixon
Free, Red Cheek Melocoton, Smock, Ward's Late Free,
and Yellow Rareripe.

PLUMS. 397

Varieties for Profitable Market Orchards. — Bale's
Early, Troth's Early, Yellow Rareripe, Crawford's Early,
Crawford's Late, Haines' Early, Oldmixon Freestone, Red-
cheek Melocoton. Smock, Yellow Alberge.

Varieties successful South and South-west. — ITale's
Early, Early Tillotson, Troth's Early, Columbia, Craw-
ford's Early, Druid Hill, Crawford's Late, George the
Fourth, Haines' Early, Heath Cling, Red-cheek Meloco-
ton, Smock, Stump the World, Tippecanoe, Freeman.

SECTION 7. — SELECT PLUMS.

Autumn Gage* — Origin New York. Medium size, oval,
broadest at the stem end ; pale yellow, with a thin, whit-
ish bloom; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, pleasant,
separates freely from the stone. — September. Tree a vig-
orous, spreading grower, and an abundant bearer.

Bleecker >S Gage , — Origin New York. Medium or above
in size, roundish, oval ; yellowish, with a thin, white
bloom ; flesh yellow, juicy, rich, sweet, excellent, separates
freely from the stone. — Last of August. Tree a good
grower and productive.

Bradshaw. — Large, oval, obovate; reddish purple,
with a light blue bloom; flesh rather coarse, juicy, brisk,
pleasant, adheres slightly to the stone. — August. Tree an
upright, vigorous grower, productive and profitable.

Coe'S Golden Drop, — Origin England. Large, oval,
distinct suture ; light yellow, with dark, carmine red
spots in the sun ; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, rich, adheres
to the stone. — Last of September. Tree a moderately
vigorous grower, hardy, and a great bearer; a variety
widely disseminated and highly esteemed.

Columbia. — Origin New York. Large or very large,
nearly round ; brownish, reddish purple, covered with a
blue bloom ; flesh orange, sweet, and rich, separates from

398 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

the stone. — Last of August. Tree a very vigorous grower,
and productive. A valuable market sort.

Denniston's Superb, — Origin New York. Medium or
below, roundish, flattened ; pale, but rich, yello ^blotches
of purple in the sun ; thin, white bloom; flesh, juicy, rich,
sweet, vinous, separates from the stone. — Last of August.
Tree moderately vigorous, forming a small, round head,
very productive ; one of the best for the garden.

Duane's Purple. — Origin New York. Large, oval, dis-
tinct suture, one side enlarged ; pale red, becoming reddish
purple in the sun, lilac bloom ; flesh amber color, juicy,
sprightly, moderately sweet, adheres partially to the stone.
— Middle to last of August. Tree very vigorous and
productive. *

Early FaYOrite. — Origin England. Small to medium,
roundish, oval ; very dark, almost black, blue bloom ;
flesh greenish yellow, juicy, sweet, vinous, separates from
the stone. — Early in August. A new sort, highly praised
abroad, but as yet little grown in this country.

Fellenberg. — An old, Italian prune, a moderate,
spreading grower, great bearer, and very valuable ; fruit
medium, oval ; dark blue, with a bloom ; flesh dark yellow,
juicy, sweet, and good, separates from the stone. — Early
in October.

General Hand. — Origin Pennsylvania. Very large,
roundish, oval ; deep yellow, marbled with greenish yel-
low; flesh coarse, pale yellow, sweet, moderately juicy,
separates freely from the stone. — September. Tree very
vigorous and productive, fine for market.

German Prune. — Medium, long, oval, one side swollen ;
purple, with a thick blue bloom; flesh firm, not juicy,
greenish, sweet, pleasant, separates freely from the stone.
—September. Tree a good grower, very productive, val-
uable for market and highly esteemed for drying.

PLUMS. 399

Green GagC* — Origin France. Rather small, round ; yel-
lowish green, with clottings of red in sun ; flesh pale green,
exceedingly juicy and melting, rich, sprightly, luscious, sep-
arates from the stone. — Middle of August. Tree a short-
jointed, healthy but slow grower, making a small, round
head, and bearing abundantly ; has no superior in qual-
ity ; suitable for a choice garden collection.

Hilling's Superb, — Origin Pennsylvania. Very large,
roundish, oval, shallow suture ; greenish yellow, cov-
ered with a thin pale bloom ; flesh greenish yellow,
rather coarse, rich, brisk, sprightly, adheres to the stone.
— Middle of August. Tree a very vigorous, upright
grower, with large foliage, a good, moderate bearer.

I ok worth I m per air ice, — Origin England. Rather
above medium size, obovate ; purple, traced with fawn ;
flesh greenish yellow, sweet, juicy, rich, adheres partially
to the stone. — Early October. Tree a good, fair grower,
productive ; valuable for its late ripening, and for its
peculiarity of hanging a long time on the tree as well as
keeping after being gathered; not much grown, but
promising to be of great market value.

Imperial Gage. — Origin New York. Rather above
medium size, oval, suture distinct ; green, until fully ripe,
when it is known by the peculiar marbling of two shades
of green ; white bloom ; flesh greenish, very juicy, rich,
melting, pleasant flavor, separates freely from the stone.
— Early September. Tree one of the best of growers, and
productive ; everywhere popular and profitable for mar-
ket or garden.

Jefferson* — Origin New York. Large, roundish, oval ;
golden yellow, with a beautiful red cheek ; flesh orange
yellow, juicy, rich, luscious, separates freely from the
stone. — Last of August. Tree a moderate, rather slow
grower, but a regular, good bearer ; one of the best in
quality.

4CO SELECT VARIETIES OF PKUITS.

July Green Gage.— Medium, roundish, oblong, suture
distinct ; greenish yellow, tinted with purple in the sun ;
flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, separates from the stone.— Last
of August. Tree a moderate grower, productive.

Lawrence's Favorite.— Origin New York. Large,
roundish, a little flattened ; dull, yellowish green, clouded
with streaks of a dark shade ; flesh greenish, juicy, melt-
ing, rich, sprightly, delicate, vinous, separates freely from
the stone. — Middle of August. Tree vigorous, upright,
very productive.

Lombard. — Origin New York. Medium, roundish,
oval ; violet red, thin bloom ; flesh deep yellow, juicy,
pleasant, not rich, adhering to the stone.— Last of Au-
gust. Tree vigorous, a great bearer, popular and profit-
able as a market sort, succeeds where many other sorts fail.

LllCOmbe'S Nonsuch. — Origin England. Above medi-
um, roundish ; yellowish green, distinctly streaked with
yellow and orange ; flesh pretty firm, greenish, adheres to
the stone. — Early September. Tree moderately vigorous,
very productive.

Magnum Bonum, Yellow (YELLOW EGG, etc.). — A pop-
ular old variety, with some twenty synonyms. Large,
or very large, egg shape, or oval ; yellow, with white
dots and a thin bloom ; flesh yellow, acid until fully ripe,
when it is sweet, adheres to the stone. — Last of August.
Tree very vigorous, productive ; valued for market and
cooking.

McLailghlin* — Origin Maine. Large, roundish, flat-
tened at ends ; yellow, dotted and marbled with red in
the sun, thin bloom ; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, very
sweet, delicious, adheres to the stone. — Last of August
Tree a hardy, vigorous grower, productive ; one of the
most valuable.

Monroe Gage. — Origin New York. Rather above
medium, oval ; greenish yellow, rarely a blush ; flesh

PLUMS. 401

greenish yellow, not very tender, but sweet. — Early Sep-
tember. Tree vigorous, productive.

Ontario. — Originated by Ellwanger & Barry, New
York. Large, roundish ; yellow, marbled ; flesh moder-
ately juicy, sweet, rich, adheres to the stone. — Early in
August. Tree a good grower and Arery productive.

Orleans. — See Smith's Orleans.

Peters' Yellow Gage.— Medium, roundish, oval ; yel-
low, with crimson dots in the sun, thin, light bloom ; flesh
yellowish, juicy, adheres slightly to the stone. — Middle
of August. Tree a moderately vigorous grower ; an
abundant bearer.

Pond's Seedling. — Origin England. Very large, oval ;
yellowish, covered with violet red, thin, white bloom;
flesh yellow, a little coarse, juicy, sugary. — Middle of
September. Tree a good grower, and an abundant
bearer ; a beautiful fruit.

Prince Englebert. — Origin Belgium. Large, oblong,
oval ; deep purple, with a blue bloom ; flesh yellowish
green, juicy, sugary, rich, separates freely from the stone.
— Last of August. Tree vigorous, a great bearer; very
valuable for market, dessert, or cooking.

Prune d'Agen (ROBE DE SERGEXT, etc.). — Medium
size, oval; violet purple, with a thick bloom; flesh green-
ish yellow, juicy, rich, sugary, and delicious, adheres
slightly to the stone. — Last of September. Tree a mod-
erate grower, very prolific.

QuackenbOSS. — Origin New York. Large, roundish,
oblong ; deep purple, covered with blue bloom ; flesh
greenish yellow, a little coarse, juicy, sprightly, sweet,
adheres slightly to the stone. — September. Tree a very
rapid, upright grower, and productive.

Reine Claude de Bavay (BAVAY'S GREEN GAGE). —
Origin Belgium. Large, roundish, a little flattened ;
greenish yellow, with splashes of green, thin bloom ; flesh

403 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

yellow, juicy, sugary, melting, rich, excellent, separates
from the stone. — Last of September. Tree a vigorous
grower and very productive ; one of the best in quality,
very valuable and extensively planted as a late market
sort.

Saint Catherine. — Origin France. Medium size, obo-
vate, deep suture ; pale yellow, a little reddish in the sun,
thin, white bloom ; flesh yellow, juicy, rather firm, and
adhering partly to the stone. — Middle to last of Septem-
ber. Tree an upright, rather slender grower ; productive
and highly prized for drying.

Saint Lawrence. — Originated in the grounds of Ell-
wanger & Barry, New York, from a seed of Smith's
Orleans. Large; dark purple; flesh juicy, melting,
sweet, adheres to the stone. — September. Tree a good
grower, productive.

Shropshire Damson. — Origin England. Medium to
small size, oval ; dark purple ; flesh melting, juicy, sep-
arates freely from the stone. — October. Tree healthy and
productive ; one of the best of the Damsons.

Smith's Orleans. — Origin Long Island. Large, round-
ish, oval ; reddish purple, covered with a blue bloom ; flesh
deep yellow, a little firm, very juicy, brisk, vinous, adheres
to the stone. — Last of August. Tree vigorous and verv^
productive; one of the most valuable for orchard or
garden.

Victoria (SHARP'S EMPEROR, etc.). — Origin England.
Large, roundish, oval ; light yellow, marbled, spotted,
and shaded with lilac and purple, thin, lilac bloom ; flesh
yellow, coarse, not juicy or sugary, a little vinous, and
separates from the stone. — Middle September. Tree vig-
orous, but irregular in growth, productive ; a plum of the
largest size, showy, and valuable for market.

Wangenheim. — Origin Germany. Medium, oval ; deep
purple, thick, blue bloom ; flesh greenish yellow, rather

PLUMS. 403

firm, juicy, sugary, rich, separates from the stone. — Last
of August. Tree a moderate grower, but good bearer;
one of the best designated as Prunes.

Washington. — Origin New York. Large to very large,
roundish, oval ; dull or deep yellow, with marblings of
green, with a pale red or crimson blush in the sun ; flesh
yellow, firm, very sweet and rich, separates freely from
the stone. — Last of August. Tree a stocky, vigorous,
healthy grower, very productive ; one of the most reli-
able for market or garden.

Yellow Gage (PRINCES). — Origin Long Island. Medi-
um to large, oval, broadest next the stalk ; golden yellow,
covered with a white bloom; flesh deep yellow, rich,
sugary, juicy, melting, separates freely from the stone. —
Early in August. Tree very vigorous, forming a large,
spreading head, very hardy and productive ; a popular
and profitable variety.

SMALL SELECT LISTS OF PLUMS.

For the Garden. — Coe's Golden Drop, Green Gage, Im-
perial Gage, Jefferson, Lawrence's Favorite, Smith's Or-
leans, Heine Claude de Bavay, McLaughlin, Washington.

For MarJcet. — Imperial Gage, Yellow Magnum Bonum,
Smith's Orleans, Pond's Seedling, Lombard, Reine Claude
de Bavay, Bradshaw, Columbia, General Hand, Quacken-
boss.

For Drying. — German Prune, Saint Catherine, Fellem-
berg.

404 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

THIRD DIVISION.— BERRIES.

CURRANTS, GOOSEBERRIES, RASPBERRIES, STRAW-
BERRIES, BERBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, MUL-
BERRIES, GRAPES, AND FIGS.

SECTION 8. — SELECT CURRANTS.

The Currant is a most useful fruit, indeed indispensable
to every garden, large or small ; it fills a space of a cou-
ple of weeks after the strawberries, raspberries, and cher-
ries, and before the apricots, early apples, and pears ; and
besides this, it possesses such a remarkable combination
of sweet and acid, as fits it for an almost endless variety
of useful and agreeable preparations, both in the green
and ripe state.

The white varieties are mildest flavored, and therefore
better for using in a raw state when ripe. The red arc
preferable for jellies, etc., on account of their beautiful
color.

Black Naples. — The largest and best black currant;
bears profusely ; valuable for jam and jellies.

Cherry. — Very large, exceeding an inch in circumfer-
ence, bunches short, color dark red, ripens same time as
Red Dutch, shoots stout, short-jointed, and erect, foliage
thick, dark green, slightly folded, and bluntly and coarsely
serrated. Mr. Le welling, of California, has 40 acres
planted with this variety ; we saw the plantation in full
fruit in 1870. It is stated that the crop of 1871 was
150,000 Ibs., sold at from 8 cents to 15 cents per pound.

La VersaillaiSC. — Similar to the foregoing in all re-
spects, so much so as to be supposed by many to be iden-
tical; it is generally believed that it is less acid and
the bunches a little longer ; a very vigorous grower, pro-
ductive, and highly valued.

GOOSEBERRIES. 405

Long-Bunched Red,— Much like Red Dutch, but with
clusters longer and larger, and rather larger fruit ; a
strong-growing, productive, and valuable variety.

Prince Albert. — A moderate grower, with large, stiff,
deeply-cut foliage, very productive; valued for its late
ripening ; fruit light red, large, acid.

Red Dutch. — A well-known variety, generally super-
seded by the larger varieties.

Short-Bunched Red. — A strong, upright grower ; ber-
ries large ; bunches short ; mild acid.

Victoria or noughton Castle. — Very large, bright red,
bunches five or six inches long ; hangs on the bushes
after others are gone ; distinguished at once by its remark-
ably long bunches and bright red color, and by the
foliage, which is quite distinct, dark green, coarsely and
bluntly serrated, quite flat, and frequently reflexed or
turned backwards at the edges ; the shoots are not so
stout and erect as those of the Cherry.

White Dutch* — Yellowish white, transparent, milder
than the red, and better for using raw ; excellent.

White Grape. — Larger every way than the preceding ;
the largest white currant ; growth rather spreading, foliage
thicker, deeper green, and more reflexed. There are sev-
eral other sorts under cultivation, of little value, unless to
those who arc making large collections for curiosity and
experiment.

SECTION 9. — GOOSEBERRIES.
CLASS I. EXGLISH VARIETIES.

The following, from the large English sorts, have all
proved excellent. In our climate these are all more or
less subject to mildew.

Red, — Albion, Crownbob, Echo, Houghton's Boggart,
Ironmonger, Lancashire Red, Prince Regent, Roaring

406 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Lion, Shakespeare, Sportsman, Top Sawyer, Wincberry,
Young's Wonderful.

White. — Chorister, Fleur de Lis, Leigh's Toper, Queen
Caroline, Smiling Beauty, Whitesmith, Wellington's
Glory, White Muslin, etc.

Green* — Berrier's Greenwood, Chipendale's Conquer-
ing Hero, Green Mountain, Green Vale, Green Willow,
Green Ocean, Independent, Jolly Cutler, Massey's Heart
of Oak, Profit.

Yellow,— Bunker Hill, Capper's Early Sulphur, Golden
Drop, Husbandman, etc.

CLASS II. AMERICAN VARIETIES.

American Seedling (PALE RED). — A vigorous grower ;
bush upright, with slender wood ; very productive, never
mildews; fruit medium to small, pale red, sweet, very
good ; hangs a long time, very valuable.

Downing. — Originated at Newburgh, N. Y. An up-
right, strong grower, productive ; fruit medium or above,
roundish oval ; green, with the rib veins distinct, smooth,
juicy; very good. The best for family use of any of the
American sorts.

Houston's Seedling. — Raised in Massachusetts from
the seed of a native variety. It is a vigorous grower, with
drooping branches, very productive ; fruit medium size
or below, smooth, pale red, sweet, very good.

Mountain Seedling, — Originated with the Shakers at
Lebanon, N. Y. A very strong, straggling grower, form-
ing a large bush, productive ; fruit large for its class, skin
thick, flesh sweet ; valued for market.

Smith's Improved, — Sinrlar to American, but larger in
size of its fruit.

RASPBERRIES. 407

SECTION 10. — SELECT RASPBERRIES.

CLASS I. FOREIGN VARIETIES AND THEIR SEEDLINGS OF

AMERICAN ORIGIN.

Belle de Paluail, — A French variety, with strong, vig-
orous, upright canes ; fruit large, conical ; bright crimson,
firm, juicy, and rich ; short, purplish spines.

Clarke* — Originated at Xew Haven, Ct. Canes strong
and vigorous, long spines, half-hardy ; fruit large, coni-
cal, bright crimson, rather soft, juicy, excellent ; produces
suckers freely ; succeeds finely in light soils.

FaStollf* — Canes very strong, nearly hardy, erect,
branching ; fruit very large, roundish, conical ; purplish
red, rich, fine flavor ; productive.

Franc onia. — Canes strong, branching ; yellowish
brown, short, stout, purple spines, large, obtuse, conical ;
purplish red, pretty firm, rich acid ; one of the hardiest
of this class, productive and profitable.

French (VICE-PRESIDENT FRENCH). — Originated in
Philadelphia, Pa. Canes strong, upright, spines short
and stout ; fruit medium to large, roundish, rich, bright
crimson, large grains, sweet and very good.

Hornet. — A French variety, with strong, upright, vig-
orous canes, stout, purplish spines; fruit large, conical,
rather firm, crimson red, juicy, sweet.

Hudson River Antwerp (RED ANTWERP OF THE HUD-
SON RIVER). — Origin unknown. Has been long and
profitably cultivated along the Hudson River, where it is
esteemed most valuable of all sorts for market. The crop
from three acres has in one season sold for $1,500, Canes
short, stout, almost spineless.

Knevett's Giant. — A very strong grower, erect, small,
reddish spines ; fruit large, obtuse, conical, deep red, firm,
rich ; almost hardy and very productive.

408 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Orange (BRIXCKLE'S ORANGE). — Origin Philadelphia,
Pa. Canes strong, branched, white spines ; fruit large,
conical, clear, orange yellow, juicy, rather soft, sweet, rich,
and excellent ; the best of all the light-colored varieties.

Red Antwerp, — This is the common Red Antwerp of
England ; distinct from the Hudson River Antwerp.
Canes tall and strong, light, red spines ; fruit large, ob-
tuse conical, dark red, juicy, brisk, vinous, fine flavor.

Semper Fidelis* — An English variety, with strong, up-
right canes, purplish, stiff spines ; fruit large, conical, firm,
juicy, sub-acid.

Victoria, — An English variety of rather dwarf habit ;
fruit very large, dark red.

CLASS II. AMERICAN SPECIES AND VARIETIES, BLACK

CAPS, ETC.

American Black Cap (DOOLITTLE, JOSLTN'S BLACK
CAP, etc.). — A hardy, native variety, improved by cultiva-
tion, very productive ; one of the best of its class for
profitable market growing, as it ripens early and carries
well.

Davison's Thornless,— A variety of the foregoing, but
free from spines and ripening some days earlier ; the fruit
is not quite as large as the American Black Cap, but is
sweeter ; moderately productive.

Miami (MAMMOTH CLUSTER, McCoRMicK). — Another
variety of the Black Cap, stronger in its growth, fewer
spines, and very productive; the fruit is also larger,
deeper color, more bloom, and ripens later.

Ontario, — A new variety of the Black Cap found near
Fairport, K Y., and introduced by E. E. Lord, of New-
ark, N. Y. Larger and a few days earlier than the com-
mon sort, and quite as good in quality, but has a thick
coating of white bloom, which injures it for market.

RASPBERRIES. 409

Philadelphia i — A variety found wild in the county of
Philadelphia, Pa. Canes very vigorous, tall, branching,
almost free from spines, and very productive; fruit medium,
roundish, dark crimson, moderately juicy, mild sub-acid,
rather soft ; a hardy and valuable variety, succeeding
finely on light soils, and in latitudes where the Ant-
werps can not well be grown.

Seneca Black Cap,— A variety of the Black Cap,
larger and later than the American, very vigorous and
very productive ; fruit has a shade of purple, with a light
bloom, juicy and sweet.

CLASS III. AUTUMNAL BEARING VARIETIES.

The product of this class of Raspberries is upon the
ends of the canes of the present season's growth, and to
insure a full autumn crop, all the old canes should be cut
away in the spring, and all the suckers kept down, con-
fining the new growths to the few strong, vigorous canes.

Belle de Fontenay, — A French variety, with stout,
branching canes, and an over-abundance of suckers, which
must be cut away as so many weeds, in order to insure a
crop ; fruit large, roundish, conical, purplish red, sprightly,
moderately firm, and rich.

Catawissa* — A native of Pennsylvania. Canes strong
and productive; fruit medium, rather flat, crimson or
purplish red, thick bloom, sprightly sub-acid ; a fine sort
for the garden.

Ulerreille des Quatre Saisons (OCTOBER RED). — A
French variety, with strong, upright canes and purple
spines ; fruit medium, roundish, somewhat conical, bright
red, rather soft, juicy, sweet, and rich.

Ohio Everbearing. — A variety of the American Black
18

410 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Cap, in every respect identical, except that it has the
habit of fruiting in autumn.

SurpaSSe Fastollf,— A new, large-fruited variety ; bright
red; promising.

White Perpetual. — Strong, vigorous canes ; fruit large,
pale, yellowish white ; productive.

SECTION 11. — SELECT STRAWBERRIES.
CLASS I. AMERICAN VARIETIES.

Agriculturist, — Originated in Newark, N. J. Plant
vigorous, a little variable, sometimes very fine, broad
foliage, productive ; fruit large, roundish, conical, irregu-
lar, dark red, pretty firm, juicy, sweet, and rich.

Charles Downing (DOWNER). — Originated in Kentucky.
Plant very vigorous, with long leaf and foot-stalks, pro-
ductive ; fruit large, conical, pretty regular, scarlet, firm,
pinkish flesh, juicy, sweet and rich.

Dlirand's Seedling, — Originated in New Jersey. Plant
moderately vigorous, productive ; fruit large, irregular,
scarlet, somewhat firm, juicy ; ripens early and keeps long
in bearing.

Downer's Prolific (DOWNER). — Originated in Kentucky.
Plant vigorous, hardy, very prolific ; fruit large, round-
ish, conical, clear, bright scarlet, rather soft, juicy, rather
acid ; ripens early.

Green Prolific. — Origin New Jersey. Plant very vig-
orous, hardy, and very productive ; valued for home or
near market ; does not bear long transportation ; fruit
large, obtuse, conical, scarlet, surface soft, rather acid, but
rich.

Hovey. — Originated at Boston, Mass. An old, well-
known sort, succeeds in rich, good soils, is one of the

STRAWBERRIES. 411

handsomest and firmest grown ; plant vigorous, moderately
productive ; fruit large, or very large, roundish, rich,
shining scarlet ; flesh firm, rich, juicy, sweet, agreeable ;
medium season of ripening.

Ida. — Origin New York. Plant vigorous, very pro-
ductive ; fruit medium, roundish, conical, dark, rich red ;
flesh rather firm, sprightly, juicy, slightly acid; among
the earliest, and continues late.

Jenny Lind, — Origin Massachusetts. Plant hardy, vig-
orous, and productive, ripens early ; fruit medium, coni-
cal, dark glossy crimson, rather firm, juicy, sprightly,
sub-acid.

Kentucky (DOWNER). — Originated in Kentucky. Plant
very vigorous, with leaf and fruit stalks hardy and pro-
ductive ; fruit large, roundish, conical, dark red, moder-
ately firm, juicy, a little acid, rich, and good ; ripens late ;
a new sort, as yet but little grown ; promising.

Large Early Scarlet. — An old variety, an abundant
bearer, very early, and hardy; fruit small to medium,
roundish, ovate, scarlet ; flesh tender, rich, excellent ;
should be in every garden.

Lennig's White. — Origin Pennsylvania. Plants vigor-
ous ; fruit large, roundish, flattened, whitish, tinged with
red ; flesh soft, tender, juicy, a delicious pineapple flavor,
excellent ; a moderate bearer, but of such superior qual-
ity as to be indispensable for the amateur's garden.

LongWOrth'S Prolific. — Origin Ohio. Plant vigorous,
hardy, very productive ; fruit large, roundish, light crim-
son ; highly valued for canning ; extensively grown in
California, where it is regarded as one* of the most profit-
able.

•Vicanor. — This variety originated in the grounds of
Ellwanger & Barry, New York, as eedling of Triompke
de G-and, and so far as tested — now some eight years —

412 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

proves to be a valuable and profitable variety, either for
market or garden. It is hardy, vigorous, productive, early,
following close to Early Scarlet, and continues a long time ;
fruit uniform, moderately large, roundish, conical, bright
scarlet ; flesh reddish, rather firm, juicy, rich, sweet, fine
flavor.

Philadelphia a — Vigorous, productive, ripens early.
Large, roundish, conical, bright, juicy, sprightly, good.

President Wilder.— Originated by Hon. Marshall P.
Wilder, of Massachusetts. Plants vigorous, hardy, pro-
ductive ; fruit large and handsome, obtuse, conical, bright
crimson scarlet; flesh juicy, firm, rich, sweet, excellent.
This is a new variety of high promise, and in general,
so far as tested, sustains all the awards of praise that have
been bestowed upon it.

Russell's Seedling (RUSSELL'S PROLIFIC). — Origin New
York. Plant vigorous and productive ; fruit large, coni-
cal, scarlet crimson ; flesh rather soft, mild, pleasant.

Wilson's Albany, — Origin New York. The most
widely grown and universally successful and profitable of
any strawberry yet produced. Plant very hardy, vig-
orous, and very productive, early to ripen and continuing
to the latest ; large, conical, deep crimson ; flesh crimson,
tender, brisk, juicy, sub-acid ; will only rank as second or
third in quality.

CLASS II. FOREIGN VARIETIES.

Jucunda, — Plants vigorous, hardy, productive; fruit
large to very large and beautiful, conical, sometimes flat-
tened coxcomb shape, clear, light scarlet ; flesh light pink,
moderately firm, sweet, often hollow and deficient in flavor.

Napoleon III. — Plants vigorous in rare cases, moder-
ately productive, generally bears only a few large and

STRAWBEKKIES. 413

beautiful fruit ; fruit large to very large, irregular, conical,
sometimes coxcomb shape, light scarlet ; flesh white, rather
firm, juicy, sweet, and rich.

Perpetual PillC (GLOEDE'S). — Plant vigorous, produc-
tive, commences to ripen early and continues a long time
in bearing ; fruit large, roundish, flattened, obtuse, coni-
cal, scarlet; flesh firm, juicy, rich, sweet.

Triomphe dc Gaud, — Plant vigorous, hardy, and pro-
ductive; fruit large, roundish, obtuse, sometimes cox-
comb shape, bright red, greenish at apex end, glossy ;
firm, a little hollow at core, juicy, rich, aromatic, agree-
able. This and Jucunda are probably the most generally
successful of the foreign sorts.

Trollope'S Victoria (GOLDEN QUEEN, etc.). — Plant
vigorous, moderately productive; fruit large, roundish,
pale red ; flesh light scarlet, tender, juicy, sweet, rich,
aromatic.

CLASS III. ALPINE VARIETIES.

Alpine Wood. — The wild strawberry of Europe ; red
and white in color. Plants very hardy, productive, ripen-
ing a long time in succession ; fruit small, conical, with a
peculiar musky, agreeable flavor ; easily grown from seed.

Alpine Bush. — The bush Alpines make no runners, and
are highly valued on account of their long-continued, reg-
ular bearing from June to October, and for the facility with
which they can be used as border plants, both useful and
ornamental; the fruit is small, red or white in color, conical,
pleasant, musky, juicy, sweet ; propagated by division or
seeds.

Autumnal Galland. — A productive variety, large, coni-
cal, light red, excellent.

414 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Montreuil. — A large and excellent variety of the Al-
pine, much grown around Paris.

CLASS IV. HAUTBOIS STRAWBERRIES.

Belle de Bordelais. — A new French sort, medium size,
dark red, fine flavored ; plant very beautiful, as all this
class are, when in bloom ; productive.

Monstrous Haut bois. — Plant very vigorous, with broad
serrated foliage, highly ornamental, very productive, bear-
ing its fruit, which is large, on high footstalks, dark col-
ored, with a rich, slightly musky flavor.

Royal HautboiS. — Plant vigorous, very prolific, fruit
medium to large, roundish, conical, dark crimson ; flesh
soft, sweet, musky, rich ; originated by Thomas Rivers, of
England, from seed of Belle de Bordelais.

SECTION 12. — BERBERRIES.
EPINE VINETTE OF THE FRENCH.

Common Red. — This is every where well known ; grown
not only for the fruit, which is used for preserves, jellies,
and pickles, but for ornament. The bright scarlet oval
fruit is borne in rich clusters, and hang on until late in
the autumn.

Sweet- Fruited (BERBERIS DULCIS). — The fruit of this is
much less acid than the common. The plant i3 not so
vigorous.

Besides these, there are several species and varieties
cultivated chiefly for ornament : The White-fruited, The
Violet-fruited, the Variegated-leaved, foliage marked with
yellow ; The Purple-leaved and Purple-fruited, the most
unique and ornamental of all, tho former with beautiful
violet-purple foliage.

BLACKBERRIES. ; 415

They are all easily propagated by layers or suckers, and
the rare sorts by grafting ; seeds of the purple produce a
large proportion true.

SECTION 13. — BLACKBERRIES.

Dorchester or IMPROVED HIGH BTTSH. — A moderately
strong, upright grower, very hardy, a good, moderate
bearer; fruit medium to large, oblong, deep, shining
black, when fully ripe, soft, juicy, rich, of the highest
flavor, but not most productive. The only sort culti-
vated twenty years ago.

Kittatinny. — A strong grower, very productive, quite
hardy ; fruit large to very large, roundish, conical, glossy
black, rather firm, rich, juicy, sweet, excellent; widely
disseminated and everywhere a success ; profitable for
market or garden.

New Rochelle or LAWTON. — A very strong grower,
with strong, stout spines, hardy in most localities, very
productive ; fruit very large, oval, black, rather soft,
juicy, tender, sweet, excellent ; requires to be fully ripe,
otherwise it is acid and lacking in flavor,

Wilson's Early. — A moderately strong grower, produc-
tive, and ripening early ; fruit large, oblong, oval, black,
firm, juicy, a little hard at center, sweet and good; a profit-
able, early market sort.

All the Blackberries ripen just after Raspberries, and
help to fill up a vacant season just before the early peach-
es, pears, etc.

The fruit is not only agreeable for the dessert, but
among the best for canning, and always healthful.

Several other varieties have been introduced, but none
of them equal in value to those described above.

416 SELECT VABIETIES OF FRUITS.

SECTION 14. — MULBERRIES.

Black* — This is a native of Persia. The berry is an
inch and- a half long, and nearly an inch in diameter,
black, succulent, sugary, and rich. The tree is highly
ornamental, very erect, with a large, spreading head. The
leaves appear late in spring, are large, heart-shaped, some-
times lobed, deep green, and form a dense shade.

Everbearing. — This variety was grown from seed by
Chas. Downing and is regarded as a valuable fruit ; the
fruit is large, one and a quarter inch long, and nearly half
an inch in diameter, color from maroon to blue black ;
flesh juicy, sugary, sprightly, and vinous ; it ripens grad-
ually, a long time in succession.

Johnson* — This variety originated in Ohio. It is a
strong, vigorous-growing tree,- with very large leaves,
and very productive ; the fruit is large, blackish, sub-acid,
mild, pleasantly agreeable.

SECTION 15. — GRAPES.

SELECT HARDY NATIVE GRAPES.

CLASS I. BLACK GRAPES.

Adirondac, — This is a grape of excellent quality, the
vine moderately vigorous, or rather delicate, a good
bearer ; fine bunch, large berry, ripens among the ear-
liest ; well suited to warm localities. Originated in North-
ern New York, near Lake Champlain.

Alvey. — A hardy, vigorous vine, moderately produc-
tive, bunches of medium size, berries small or medium ;
sprightly vinous, pretty free from pulp. Good in quality ;
not profitable. Ripens with Concord. Origin Pennsyl-
vania.

Barry (ROGERS' No. 43). — A vigorous vine, produc-

GRAPES. 417

tive, bunches large, compact, berries large, round;
juicy, sweet, pleasant ; flesh nearly free from pulp. Ri-
pens about time of Concord.

Caiiada (ARNOLD'S ISTo. 16). — The vine of this variety
is much like Clinton, its bunches and berries larger, flesh
nearly free from pulp, juicy and good. Ripens with Con-
cord. Raised by Charles Arnold, of Ontario, and said to
be a cross between Clinton and Black St. Peter's.

Clinton* — A well-known old sort. The bunches are
small to medium, compact, berries small, black; colors
early, but requires a considerable time after that to attain
full maturity, and will hang until early winter. Success-
ful both North and South. A hardy, productive, valua-
ble sort.

Concord. — Almost too well known to need a word. It
is a very strong, vigorous, and productive variety; suc-
ceeding in almost every soil and locality. One of the
earliest and most profitable ; valuable for garden or vine-
yard. The bunch is large, shouldered ; berry large, round,
black ; flesh juicy, pleasantly sweet, agreeable ; skin too
thin to carry well, and therefore not good for distant
markets.

Cornucopia (ARNOLD'S No. 2). — Medium-sized berry,
with a large, compact, shouldered bunch ; flesh nearly free
from pulp ; juicy, sweet, sprightly, and good. Ripens
with Concord. Same origin as Canada.

Creveling. — An old variety. Supposed origin Penn-
sylvania. A fine grape, but does not always set well.
The bunch is medium, often very loose, shouldered ; berry
medium, round, blue bloom ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet,
very little pulp ; richer than Concord, and ripens a little
before that variety.

Cynthiana. — A variety much like Norton's Virginia.
Highly prized for wine purposes in the West ; vine vigor-

18*

418 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

ous, hardy, and productive, and by some deemed superior
to Norton.

Elsinburgh, — An old variety; a moderate, regular
bearer; much esteemed, where known, for the table. The
bunch is pretty large, long, and loose, shouldered ;
berries small, round ; flesh free from pulp, juicy, sweet,
excellent.

Essex (ROGERS' No. 41). — Vine a vigorous and strong
grower, productive ; bunch medium size, short, shoul-
dered ; berry large, tender, and sweet. Ilipens with Con-
cord.

Eumelan. — A comparatively new variety, it has not
yet been much tested. The vine is moderately vigorous ;
bunch of medium size; berry rather small ; flesh tender,
sweet, rich, juicy, excellent. It promises great value for
the amateur garden or for a table variety, and may be val-
ued for vineyard. A good bearer. Origin New York.
Supposed to be a seedling of the Isabella.

Hartford Prolific, — A very popular variety because of
its early maturity. The vine is vigorous, hardy, and a
good bearer ; bunch large, shouldered ; berry large, round,
musky ; thick skin, black, with a bloom ; flesh sweet, with a
tough acid pulp ; rich and good when fully ripe. Liable
to drop its berries from the bunch when fully ripe, and more
so on sand than clay soils. A week earlier than Concord.

Hcrbemont, — A Southern variety, highly esteemed in
Missouri and many Southern localities, as profitable and
desirable for wine or table. North it does not ripen its
fruit generally. The bunch is large, compact ; berries be-
low medium, almost black ; flesh juicy, sweet, rich, aro-
matic.

Herbert (ROGERS' No. 44). — A vigorous, strong grower.
Moderately productive. Bunch rather loose, berry me-
dium ; flesh tender, sweet, a little pulpy, very good. Ri-
pens with Concord. A large, handsome variety.

GRAPES. 419

Isabella. — This old, well-known sort continues popular
and profitable in many localities, but is rapidly being su-
perseded. It is a vigorous grower, an immense bearer,
and hardy, but in some localities it is liable to mildew.
In quality, it is the best of any of the black grapes of its
season. Bunches large, rather loose ; berries oval, pretty
large ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, slightly musky. Still
one of the best for market, where it ripens, as it carries and
keeps well.

Israella. — Originated with Dr. C. W. Grant, of lona
Island, N. Y. The vine is vigorous and a good bearer,
ripening about with Concord. Bunch medium; ber-
ries above medium, black; flesh free from pulp, juicy and
sweet.

Ives (IvEs* SEEDLING). — This originated with Henry
Ives, Cincinnati, O. The vine is very vigorous, hardy,
and very productive. It is esteemed as a profitable wine
grape, and is a tolerable table grape when fully ripe.
Bunch medium size, compact, shouldered ; berry medium,
roundish oval ; flesh with some considerable pulp, yet
juicy and sweet. Ripens with Concord.

Merrimack (ROGERS' No. 19). — Vine vigorous and pro-
ductive. Bunches medium, rather short ; berry large,
round, slight bloom ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet. One of
the earliest and best- of the Rogers varieties.

Miles* — Of Pennsylvania origin. Vine a moderate
grower, hardy, and very productive. One of the very
earliest, good grapes to ripen. Bunch and berry small,
round ; flesh tender, slight pulp at center, juicy, vinous,
very good.

Norton's Virginia. — Introduced to cultivation by Dr.
D. N. Norton, of Richmond, Ya. It is a strong, vigorous,
long grower, producing very abundantly, and highly es-
teemed for wine. Bunch medium, shouldered; berries

420 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

small, purplish black ; flesh tender, juicy, rich, brisk, rough,
sweet flavor. Although most largely grown in Missouri,
it is equally adapted to the North, as it ripens with Isa-
bella.

Othello (ARNOLD'S No. 1). — Originated with Charles
Arnold, Canada West. A good, strong grower and pro-
ductive, ripening early or with Delaware. Bunch large,
shouldered, compact ; berry large ; flesh firm, juicy, a lit-
tle pulp. Sprightly, very good.

Senasqua, — Originated with S. "W. TInderhill, Croton
Point, N. Y. A vigorous grower, and productive. Bunch
medium to large; berry medium or above; purplish black ;
flesh juicy, tender, free from pulp, sweet, vinous, excel-
lent. Ripens about with Concord, or perhaps a few days
later. Said to be a cross between Concord and Black
Prince. New and but partially tested.

Telegraph (CHRISTINE). — Originated in Philadelphia.
Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive ; one of the earliest
to ripen. Bunch above medium to large, compact ; berry
large, round, black ; flesh juicy, tender, very little pulp,
not as sweet as Hartford Prolific, but free of all the musky
flavor, and ripening at same time.

To Kalon* — An old variety, originated at Lansingburgh,
N. Y. A vigorous grower, hardy, but irregularly pro-
ductive. Does not ripen evenly. Bunches large, shoul-
dered, berries almost purplish black, covered with bloom ;
flesh Very sweet, buttery, very little pulp. A large, hand-
some grape, but quite variable in quality.

Union Village (ONTARIO). — Origin Ohio. A very vig-
orous grower, with immense foliage, productive. Bunch
and berry very large ; flesh free from hard pulp, tender,
juicy, vinous, pleasant. Vine rather tender at the North ;
needs protection. A splendid fruit.

Wilder (ROGERS' No. 4).— This is believed to be the

GRAPES. 421

best of the black varieties. Grown by E. S. Rogers, Salem,
Mass. The vine is vigorous, hardy, a good bearer, and
the fruit hangs well to the vine, and is a good keeper.
Bunch large, compact, shouldered ; berry large, round,
black ; flesh tender, slight pulp at center, juicy, sweet,
rather rich and aromatic. Ripens about with Concord.
Promises to be valuable for market on account of its size
and beauty.

York Madeira (CABBY'S AUGUST). — An old variety.
Originated in Pennsylvania ; vine moderately vigorous,
hardy, productive ; bunch and berry medium ; flesh sweet,
sprightly vinous.

CLASS II. — RED GRAPES.

Agawam (ROGERS' No. 15). — Vine very vigorous, hardy,
productive, a little liable to mildew; bunch variable, some-
times large and fine, often small and imperfect ; berries
large, roundish, thick skin; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, aro-
matic, hard center pulp, with a native musky aroma. Gen-
erally regarded as the best of Rogers' red varieties.

Catawba.— A native of Maryland. The Catawba does
not always ripen at the North, except in certain localities ;
but where it does ripen perfectly, no grape of its season
surpasses it in quality or value. It has been subject to
disease of rot, etc., in some localities, but it is again re-
newing itself, and in sections where, a few years since, it
was unprofitable, it is now one of the best. It has been
more generally grown as a wine and table grape than any
other, except, perhaps, the Isabella, and to-day holds su-
premacy in many localities. Except in sheltered or favored
localities and in good seasons, it does not ripen well in
Western New York. Bunch medium to large, loose ; ber-
ries large, coppery red, with light bloom, round ; flesh
slightly pulpy at center, juicy, very sweet, musky, aro-

422 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

matic, rich. Ripens early in October, but will hang, and is
improved, until weather becomes too cold. Keeps well
during winter.

Delaware i — This in quality is one of our most delicate
and best of native varieties. The vine is perfecely hardy,
a healthy grower, requiring rich soil, has short-jointed
wood, and bears abundantly, so much so, that, if long
pruned, which is best, it should have more or less of its
fruit thinned out. As a table-dessert grape, or for wine, it
is one of the best. The bunch is small, compact, shoulder-
ed ; berries small, round, clear, light red, almost translu-
cent ; free from pulp, sweet, vinous, aromatic.

Diana* — Originated in Boston, Mass. Vine vigorous,
healthy, hardy, and productive, requires age to develop
its true qualities. A thin, light, or poor soil is better
suited to it than one over-rich. It hangs well after ripen-
ing, and is one of the best winter keepers among grapes.
The bunches are large, compact ; berry medium, reddish
lilac ; flesh juicy, nearly free from pulp, sweet, aromatic ;
colors early, but does not attain perfect maturity earlier
than Catawba. A valuable table and wine grape where it
ripens well. Supposed to be a seedling from the Catawba.

Goethe (ROGERS' "No. 1). — Vine very vigorous and pro-
ductive. Ripens with Catawba. Succeeds well South and
South-west, or wherever the Catawba ripens perfectly.
At the North and East, it does not ripen perfectly, except
in sheltered, warm locations. Bunch large, moderately
compact ; amber flushed with red ; flesh tender, melting,
sweet, juicy, delicious.

lona. — Originated by Dr. Grant. Vine moderately
vigorous, hardy, productive. The fruit colors early, but
does not really ripen much, if any, earlier than Catawba.
It has been widely disseminated, but is not found success-
ful as a vineyard sort, except in certain localities. Bunch
medium to large, shouldered ; berries medium size, round-

GRAPES. 423

ish oval ; light, clear red, thin bloom ; flesh soft, tender,
vinous, juicy, sweet, delicious. A grape of superior qual-
ity, and should be in every garden where the climate is
suitable.

Lindley (ROGERS' No. 9). — Vine healthy ; not as vigor-
ous or strong grower as others of the Rogers seedlings ;
foliage rather sparse ; a good bearer. Bunch medium,
compact; berry medium, roundish, pale reddish; flesh
sweet, tender, juicy, slightly aromatic. One of the best
and earliest of the Rogers list.

Massasoit (ROGERS' No. 3). — Vine moderately vigor-
ous, productive ; bunch medium, rather loose ; berry large,
roundish, light, claret red ; flesh tender, juicy, sweet ; ri-
pens just before Concord ; is a desirable variety for the
garden.

Mottled. — Originated with Charles Carpenter, Kelley's
Island, O. Yine a healthy, moderate grower, with short-
jointed wood, very productive ; bunch medium, very com-
pact ; berry medium, round, mottled red ; flesh juicy,
rich, sweet, a little hard at center, vinous. An excellent
grape for wine or table ; hangs a long time on the vine,
and keeps remarkably well.

Salem (ROGERS' No. 22). — Yine healthy, vigorous, and
productive ; bunch large, compact ; berry large, round ;
dark, coppery red ; flesh tender, juicy, slight pulp, sweet,
a little foxy, aromatic. Ripens about same season as Isa-
bella.

Walter. — Origin Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Yine hardy,
healthy, vigorous, short-jointed, very productive ; bunch
medium, compact ; berries medium, round, light red; flesh
sweet, juicy, deliciously rich vinous. Ripens shortly after
Concord. Promises to be valuable both for table and
wine.

424 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

CLASS III. — WHITE GRAPES.

Allen's Hybrid. — Vine vigorous grower, not hardy, pro-
ductive, liable to mildew, ripens early ; bunch medium or
above, pretty compact; berry medium, roundish, pale
whitish yellow; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, slightly vinous,
delicious. Rarely escapes destruction by mildew in West-
ern New York.

AutUChon (ARNOLD'S No. 5). — Originated with Charles
Arnold, Paris, C. W. Said to be a cross between Clinton
and Golden Chasselas. Yine moderately vigorous and
productive ; bunch long, moderately compact ; berry me-
dium ; greenish white, with a golden hue when fully ripe ;
flesh free from pulp, juicy, sweet, sprightly, and rich.
Said to ripen with Delaware. New and but little known.

CrotOD, — Originated by S. Underbill, Croton Point,
N. Y. Said to be a cross between Delaware and Golden
Chasselas. Yine vigorous, very productive ; bunch large,
shouldered ; berry medium or above, greenish yellow ;
flesh juicy, sprightly, sweet, rich, delicious. Ripens
among the earliest, or about with Hartford Prolific.
Promises to be a valuable garden variety.

( uyahoga. — Origin Ohio. Yine vigorous, healthy, and
productive, requires a warm soil and location at the North ;
mildews at the South; bunch medium; berry medium,
greenish amber ; flesh tender, juicy, vinous, sweet ; when
well ripened, one of the best. Ripens with Catawba.

Lydia. — Originated on Kelley's Island, O. Yine moder-
ately vigorous, with rather sparse foliage, moderate bearer
while young, good bearer when old and long pruned;
bunch medium, short, compact; berry round, greenish
white, amber yellow at maturity ; flesh juicy, rich, sweet,
very little pulp. Ripens with Delaware. One of the very
best in quality.

GRAPES. 425

Martha,— Raised by Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo.
Vine a vigorous grower and a good bearer, hardy and
healthy ; bunch medium ; berry large, roundish, greenish
yellow ; flesh juicy, sweet, a little pulp at center. Ripens
with Concord.

Maxatawney. — Originated in Pennsylvania. Vine vig-
orous, hardy, healthy, and productive. Ripens with Isa-
bella, and is one of the best of the white grapes ; bunch me-
dium, rather loose, berries medium, roundish oval, green-
ish or yellowish white, tinted with amber ; flesh free from
palp, tender, sweet, juicy, sprightly, delicious.

Rebecca. — Origin Hudson, N". Y. Vine a free but not
strong grower, an abundant bearer, hardy in most locali-
ties ; ripens soon after Concord, and deserves a place in
every garden; bunch medium, compact ; berries medium,
greenish yellow, almost golden amber at full ripeness ; flesh
rather firm, juicy, sweet, delicious. When well ripened it
is not surpassed by any of the native grapes.

SELECT FOREIGN GRAPES.

CLASS I. — BLACK OR PURPLE GRAPES.

Alicante (BLACK PALESTINE, etc.). — Bunch large, shoul-
dered, compact ; berries nearly round, black, with a little
bloom; flesh tender, juicy, fine. An excellent late varie-
ty; hangs well.

Black Frontignan (MUSCAT NOIR, etc.). — Bunches long ;
berries medium size, round ; flesh musky, rich ; a good
bearer.

Black Hamburgh. — One of the most popular, because
well known and tested. It is an admirable grape, and a
general favorite; bunch large, often double-shouldered;
berries large, roundish, slightly oval; juicy, very sugary,
rich.

426 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

Black St, Peter's, — Bunches large, long ; berries large,
black bloom; flesh tender, rich, and juicy. Late, and
hangs a long time after ripe ; valuable.

Burckhardt'S Prince. — Bunches long ; berries medium,
deep black ; flesh firm, juicy, vinous.

Champion Hamburgh, — An excellent grape. Much
like Black Hamburgh.

Due de Magenta* — Bunch and berry large ; flesh juicy,
rich ; ripens sometime before Black Hamburgh.

Early Black Bordeaux.— Bunches short, shouldered;
berries medium or above ; flesh tender, melting, rich, and
sweet. One of the best early purple or black grapes
known.

Gros Maroc. — Bunch large, compact, shouldered ; ber-
ries large, round, black; flesh firm, sweet, vinous. A fine
grower, and ripens well.

Jura Muscat. — Bunch large, shouldered ; berries above
medium, oval ; flesh rich, flavored with a fine Muscat
aroma.

Lady Downe's. — Bunches large, rather loose, shouldered ;
berries above medium, roundish oval ; black, with a thin
bloom; flesh firm, sweet, and rich. One of the most
valuable late varieties. Hangs a long time after ripen-
ing.

Muscat Hamburgh, — Bunches large and long ; berries
large, roundish oval; flesh juicy, rich, excellent; flavor of
Muscat of Alexandria. Requires good culture, but is of
the highest quality.

Muscat LierTal. — Bunch medium ; berries round, me-
dium size, deep purplish black ; flesh rich, sugary, with a
slight Muscat flavor. Yery early.

Muscat d' lout. — Bunch and berries medium ; round in-
clining to oval ; flesh very rich and juicy. A good early
grape.

GBAPKS. 427

Mrs, Pince's Black Muscat. — Bunches large, shoul-
dered; berries medium size, oval, purplish black, thin
bloom ; flesh firm, sweet, vinous, with a Muscat flavor.
A valuable new grape.

Trentham Black. — Bunches large, tapering, and shoul-
dered ; berries oval ; skin tough, jet black ; flesh juicy,
rich, sugary, and vinous. Valued highly for the cold
vinery.

CLASS II. — RED GRAPES.

Grizzly Frontignan. — Bunches large; berries large,
round; skin thick, pale brown, blended with pink and
yellow; flesh very juicy, rich, musky, high-flavored.

CLASS III. — WHITE GRAPES.

Bo wood Muscat. — Bunch large ; berries very large,
bright amber color; flesh rich, juicy, sweet, fine Muscat
flavor. A superb grape ; sets and ripens tolerably well
in cold vineries. Supersedes to some extent the Muscat
of Alexandria and Canon Hall Muscat.

Buckland'S Sweetwater, — Bunch large, shouldered;
berries round, slightly oval ; skin thin, amber color, with
a thin white bloom ; flesh juicy, sweet, delicious.

Chasselas Musqul, — Bunches medium size, long, loose;
berries medium size, round ; skin thin, yellowish white ;
flesh tender, very juicy, rich musky flavor. A delicious
grape, highest flavored of the Chasselas. Sometimes
cracks. Requires severe thinning.

Chasselas Royal. — Bunches short, compact, shouldered ;
berries round, large, pale amber when ripe. An excellent
grape.

Dccon's Superb, — Bunch and berry large. Truly a
superb white grape.

428 SELECT VARIETIES OF FKUIT;?.

Early Smyrna Frontignan. — Bunches medium, well
formed, not shouldered ; berries medium, round, bright
amber ; flesh juicy, melting, rich, and delicious. One of
the earliest to ripen. Well suited to a cold vinery.

Early Silver Frontignan. — Bunch medium to large,
shouldered ; berries large, roundish oval, whitish silvery
yellow; flesh melting, juicy, rich, agreeable. An early
and productive sort. Very desirable.

Foster's White Seedling, — Bunch large ; berries above
medium, roundish oval, yellowish amber ; flesh tender,
melting, sweet, and rich flavored. A new variety, supe-
rior to Royal Muscadine ; ripening at the same time.

Golden Champion. — Bunches large, heavily shouldered ;
berries very large, obovate or ovate, to almost round ; flesh
firm, very juicy, tender, and rich. A superb new va-
riety.

Madelaine Royal. — Bunch medium; berries medium,
roundish ; flesh tender, juicy, excellent. One of the best
early white sorts.

Primavis Frontignan, — Bunches large, long, shoul-
dered ; berries medium to large, round, amber color ; flesh
rather solid, tender, juicy, sweet, and rich. One of the
finest of the early Muscat Chasselas family.

Royal Muscadine (CIIASSELAS DE FOXTAIKEBLEAU, etc.).
bunches large and shouldered ; berries large, greenish
white, becoming amber when fully ripe ; flesh tender, rich,
and delicious. An excellent old sort ; still popular.

Syrian. — Bunches enormously large, with broad shoul-
ders ; berries large, oval ; skin thick, tawny yellow, or am-
ber when mature; flesh firm and solid, moderately juicy
and sweet ; bunches weighing nineteen and a half pounds
have been grown.

TrebbianOt — Bunches large, broad, shouldered ; berries

FIGS. 429

medium, roundish oval, whitish, with a delicate bloom ;
flesh firm, rich, sweet. A fine late grape.

White Frontignan. — Bunches medium, rather long, not
shouldered ; berries medium, round, dull white, or yellow,
thin bloom ; flesh tender, rich, perfumed, musky. An old
and favorite variety, known under many names ; so very
hardy in its habit and uniform productiveness as to be
widely grown and esteemed.

White Muscat of Alexandria. — Bunches very large,
long, and loose, shouldered; berries large, oval, pale am-
ber, with a thin white bloom ; flesh firm, moderately juicy,
sweet, rich Muscat flavor. An old, well-known variety ;
requires a high temperature to mature it thoroughly. It
is from this that the Muscatel raisins arc made. Succeeds
well in the open air in California.

White Nice. — Bunch very large, shouldered, loose ; ber-
ries medium, roundish, greenish white, becoming yellow-
ish at maturity ; flesh sweet, very good flavor. Bunches
weighing eighteen pounds have been grown. It is very
prolific.

SUB-TROPICAL FRUITS.
SECTION 10. — FIGS.

The culture of the Fig in all of the Southern States,, Cali-
fornia, and Utah is as easy as that of the apple in the Mid-
dle States, and it promises to become one of the profitable
branches of fruit culture. In the North, they are easily
grown in pots or tubs.

Adams* — Very large, turbinate, brownish purple ; leaves
very large ; new. This is said to be the largest variety
grown.

Ange'lique (ANGELICA). — Medium size, obovate ; yellow,

430 SELECT VARIETIES OF FIIUITC.

dotted with long greenish white specks ; flesh white, tinged
with red at the center. An abundant bearer.

Brown Ischia, — Medium size, roundish turbinate, light
brown or chestnut-colored ; flesh purple, sweet, and high-
flavored. An excellent bearer.

Brown Turkey. — Large, pyriform ; brownish red, cov-
ered with blue bloom ; flesh red and very luscious. Tree
very hardy and prolific.

Brunswick* — Very large, pyriform, depressed at apex ;
greenish yellow, with violet brown on sun side; flesh
tinged with red at center, rich and excellent. Tree one of
the hardiest, and a capital bearer.

Early Violet. — Small, roundish, brownish red, covered
with a blue bloom ; flesh red, fine flavored ; tree hardy
and abundant bearer. One of the best for pots and
forcing.

PergUSSata. — Small, round, compressed at ends ; pur-
pi isli brown, with pale spots in the sun ; flesh deep red,
rich and luscious. Hangs a long time.

White Genoa. — Large, roundish turbinate; skin thin,
pale yellowish ; flesh red, excellent flavor ; only a mod-
erate bearer.

SECTION 17. — CHANGES — CITRUS.

The cultivation of the Orange is now attracting more at-
tention in Florida and Southern California, than it has ever
done before. In some parts of Florida — the Indian
River country, in particular — the crop rarely fails from
any cause, and the fruit is of the finest quality. Where
the soil is suitable, and proper care bestowed on the
cultivation, an orange grove must be quite as profitable
as the best of our Northern orchards.

CHANGES. 431

The trees bear annually, come into bearing at four or
five years from bud or graft, and continue to improve from
year to year for a long period. They live to a great age
under favorable circumstances — trees are recorded some
400 years old.

Previous to the extraordinary frost of 1835, there were
single trees at St. Augustine that yielded annually about
40,000 oranges.

This, at the average price in the grove, two cents,
would be $800. A handsome income from one tree ! The
oldest groves now in Florida are twenty-five to thirty
years old. The orange flourishes best in a rich calcareous
soil. The most thrifty and fruitful plantations we saw,
were on shell lands, which occur frequently in Florida — a
dark, rich loam mixed with small shells. In the absence
of shells, lime will no doubt be beneficial. The propaga-
tion is similar to other fruit-trees.

Stocks for grafting are either procured by raising seed-
lings of the Bitter or Wild Orange, which can be worked
at the age of one or two years from seed ; or plants may
in some places be procured from the woods. In many lo-
calities in Florida, the Wild Orange abounds in the woods,
and seems to be as much at home as though it were indi-
genous. The trees are planted in groves at twenty to
thirty feet apart. It takes ten or twelve years to bring
the trees to a really remunerative condition.

After the fourth or fifth year the crop will probably pay
for cultivation.

VARIETIES.

There are a great many varieties in cultivation, intro-
duced from China, Spain, and other orange-growing coun-
tries, but that grown in Florida, which was no doubt in-
troduced by the Spaniards, has no superior. It is known
as the

432 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

St. Augustine Orange, a variety of the Sweet Orange,
in the markets, often sold under local names, such as
"Mellonville," "Indian River," etc. It is a large, hand-
some fruit, with moderately thin skin, somewhat rough ;
pulp full of sweet, sprightly, delicious juice. It resembles
the Cuba Orange, but seems to be larger and of better
quality.

The Havana. — This is the most common in our markets
and best known. A large, excellent fruit ; quite similar
to the preceding.

The Maltese, or MALTA BLOOD, has a thick and spongy
rind; pulp red arid delicious, but sometimes a trace of bit-
tern ess.

The Mandarin is a small, flattened fruit, thin rind, with
a dark orange pulp ; j uicy and rich.

The Bergamot has small flowers and pear-shaped fruit ;
very fragrant, and much used by perfumers.

The Variegated-Leaved is a variety with variegated
foliage; ornamental.

The Shaddock ( Citrus decumana] is a fruit of great
size, striking in appearance, but not of value, except for
confectionery.

The Tangerine is small, sweet, and rich ; very prolific.
One of the best for pot culture.

The Otaheitc is a small variety, a dwarf growing kind ;
blooms and bears abundantly when not over a foot high.

The St. Michaels is a medium-sized fruit, pale yellow,
with a thin rind, very delicious, and tree an abundant bear-
er. Chiefly grown in the Portuguese island St. Michael.

The Myrtle-Leaved (or CHINESE) is a small fruited va-
riety, a dwarf tree ; more curious than profitable.

Beside these are the Egg, Embiguo or Navel, Silver,
Pernambuco, Exquisite, Du Roi, Excelsior, Prolific, Did-

LEMON, LIME, AND POMEGRANATE. 433

cississima, and several others recently introduced, some of
which may prove to be valuable.

LEMON AND LIME.

The Lemon ( Citrus Limonium) is not as hardy as the
orange, and is improved by being worked upon the bitter-
orange stock. There is an Italian variety which is sweet.

The Lime ( Citrus Limetta). — Several varieties in culti-
vation. That commonly grown is a profuse bearer.
Hedges arc formed of it in the West Indies. It is grown
extensively in California, and is very profitable. It is
used for the same purpose as the lemon, and for pre-
serves.

THE POMEGRANATE.

The Pomegranate is a native of China and the south of
Europe, and its culture in our Southern States and Cali-
fornia is perfectly successful. It is a low, deciduous tree,
with long, narrow leaves. The fruit has a very refresh-
ing, sweet, rather acid pulp, and its singular and beauti-
ful appearance makes it a welcome addition to the des-
sert. The tree is propagated like other fruit-trees, by
seeds, layers, cuttings, graftings, etc., and grows readi-
ly in any ordinary good garden soil.

The varieties known as the best are the Sweet-fruited,
with sweet and juicy pulp ; the Sub-acid-fruited, which is
the variety commonly grown in gardens ; the Violet, which
is a large and late variety, and the Wild or Acid-fruited,
with a sharp acid flavor.

The Pomegranate is also a highly ornamental shrub,
and its varieties with double red and double white flow-
ers are especially attractive and desirable.
19

434 SELECT VARIETIES OF FRUITS.

THE PAWPAW OR CUSTARD APPLE.

The Custard Apple, a variety of which, Aaimina triloba,
commonly called Pawpaw, is a native of Kentucky, South-
ern Ohio, etc. It is a small, deciduous tree, easily pro-
pagated by seeds or grafting.

The Custard Apple of Peru and other tropical countries
(Anona cherimolia) is described as a superior fruit,
and highly esteemed for the dessert. The A. palustris,
A. squamosa, and A. miiricata are esteemed West India
varieties.

FOURTH DIVISION. ALMONDS, CHESTNUTS, FILBERTS, AND

WALNUTS.

SECTION 18. — ALMONDS.

Sweet Hard-shell* — This is a hardy and productive va-
riety, succeeding well in the climate of Western Ntiv
York, and still farther North. Nut very large, with a hard
shell and a large, sweet kernel ; ripe here about the first
of October. The tree is very vigorous, has smooth glau-
cous leaves, and when in bloom in the spring is more
brilliant and showy than any other fruit tree.

Soft Sweet-shell, Ladies' Thin-shell, etc.— This is the
almond of the shops, of which such immense quantities
are annually imported from abroad. It and all its sub-
varieties, as far as we know, are too tender for our North-
ern climate, unless carefully grown on a wall or trellis, and
protected. South of Virginia, we believe, it succeeds
well ; and so beautiful a tree, and so estimable a fruit, de-
serve the attention of all fruit-growers. Very successfully
grown in California.

The Bitter Almond. — This is hardy and productive ; nut

CHESTNUTS FILBERTS. 435

similar to the first-named in appearance, but bitter, and
only useful in confectionery or medicine. Its chief pro-
duct is the prussic acid of the druggists.

SECTION 19. — CHESTNUTS.

The American or Common Chestnut is well known as
one of our most beautiful forest-trees. It is seldom
grown as a fruit-tree, although the fruit is highly es-
teemed. It should have a place in all large collections of
standard fruit-trees. It reproduces itself from seed.

The Dwarf Chestnut, or Chinquapin, is a small tree

eight or ten feet high, and very prolific, but the nuts are
small. It grows spontaneously in Maryland, Virginia, and
southward.

The Spanish Chestnut or Marron. — This is the large,
sweet nut, as large as a horse chesnut, imported from
abroad. There arc many varieties cultivated in France
and England, but that designated by the French as
" Marron de Lyon? is the best. It is propagated by
grafting on the common sorts. It is not reproduced truly
from seed, but its seedlings produce large and fine fruits.
It bears and ripens well as far north as Rochester. It
bears the second year from the graft and the fourth from
seed.

SECTION 20. — FILBERTS.

1. Cosford* — This is an improved variety of the Eng-
lish hazel-nut, very prolific, nut large, oblong, or oval ;
shell thin, and kernel fine-flavored.

2. Coburg. — Large and fine, and a most abundant
bearer.

3. Dwarf Prolific. — One of the most prolific bearers,

436 SELECT VARIETIES OP FRUITS.

nut rather small. We have plants two feet high bearing
well; kernel good.

4. Frizzled, — Remarkable for its curious frizzled husk,
a good bearer, and one of the finest flavored.

5. Red-Skinned. — One of the old standard sorts of the
English growers, distinguished by the bright red or crim-
son skin of the kernel ; medium size, egg-shaped, shell
thick, flavor good.

6. White, — This is also an old standard sort ; the kernel
is a yellowish white. Both this and the preceding have
long husks.

SECTION 21. — WALNUTS.

The English or Madeira Nut (Juglans regia).— This
is a native of Persia. A lofty, spreading tree, with pin-
nated leaves like the butternut, and the fruit nearly as
large. Great quantities are annually imported, and sold
in the fruit shops.

The tree is tender while young, the ends of the
young shoots being injured in winter at the north, but as
it grows older it becomes hardier. It is produced from
seed or by grafting. There are many varieties of it culti-
vated abroad, few of which have yet been introduced
here on account of the little attention given to this class
of fruits. Is now being extensively planted in California,
where it succeeds well.

The Dwarf Prolific Walnut (Juglans pr&parturiens)

is a French variety, most desirable for the garden. It
bears at the age of three years from the seed, and often at
the hight of two to three feet.

Our native sorts, the Black Walnut (Juglans nigra)^
the Butternut (Juglans cinerea), the Hickory-Nut
(Gary a), and its varieties, are all well-known trees that

GATHERING FRUITS, ETC. 437

deserve much more attention than they receive, consider-
ing the value of their timber as well as fruit.

CHAPTER H.

GATHERING, PACKING, TRANSPORTATION, AND PRESERVA-
TION OF FRUITS.

THIS is a branch of the general subject of fruit culture
and management that requires the most careful attention ;
for it is quite useless to take pains in producing fine fruits,
without taking equal pains in gathering, preserving, and
sending them to the table or the market in a sound,
sightly, and proper condition. Very few fruit-growers
seem to Appreciate this part of their business. Fruit-
dealers at home and abroad complain of the careless and
slovenly manner in which our fruits are gathered, packed,
and presented in the market, and would gladly pay a dou-
ble price for them in a better condition. The first con-
sideration is :

The period of maturity at which fruits should be
gathered. — The stone fruits generally are allowed to reach
perfect maturity, or within four or five days of it, on the
tree.

In moist, cool seasons, particularly, they are benefited
by being gathered a few days before maturity, and allow-
ed to ripen in a dry, warm room; they part with the
water contained in their juices, which thus become better
elaborated and more sugary and high-flavored.

Summer Pears, too, on the same principle, require to
be gathered, as a general thing, from a week to a fort-

438 GATHERING FRUITS, ETC.

night before their maturity. Sweet varieties, and such as
are inclined to become mealy, are entirely worthless when
ripened on the tree, and many very excellent varieties
are condemned on this account. Such as these should be
gathered the moment the skin begins to change color in
the least degree.

Summer Apples, too, and especially those inclined to
mealiness, should be picked early ; as soon as the skin
begins to change color, otherwise they part with their
juices, and become worthless. Ripeness is indicated by
the seeds turning dark-colored, and by the stem parting
readily from the tree when it is lifted upwards.

Winter Apples and Pears should be allowed to remain
on the trees as long as vegetation is active, or until frosts
are apprehended.

Grapes, Berries, etc., are allowed to attain perfect
maturity before being gathered.

Chestnuts, Filberts, etc., are not gathered until they be-
gin to fall from the tree.

Mode of Gathering. — Unless it be a few specimens
wanted for immediate use, which may be taken with some
of the contrivances mentioned under the head of imple-
ments, all fruits should be gathered by the hand. The
branch to be gathered from should be taken in one hand,
and the fruits carefully taken off, one by one, with the other,
witlutheir stems attached. (For fruits neither keep so well,
nor look so well, without the stems.) They are then laid
carefully in single layers in broad, shallow baskets, the bot-
toms of which should be covered with paper or moss, to
prevent bruises. Peaches and other soft fruits should be
pressed as lightly as possible, for anything like a squeeze
is certainly followed by decay in the form of a brown
spot, and this is the reason why it is so exceedingly diffi-
cult to find a perfectly sound and at the same time ripe
peach in our markets.

GATHERING FRUITS, ETC. 439

When more than one layer of fruifc is laid in the same
basket, some soft paper, dry moss, hay, or other material,
ought to separate them, for it is difficult to place one layer
immediately upon another, and especially if the fruits are
approaching maturity, without bruising them more or less.
Fruit should only be gathered in dry weather, and in the
dry time of the day.

Disposition of the Fruits after gathering. — When they
are thus in the baskets, if summer fruits, they are either
carried into the fruit-room and arranged on shelves or
tables in thin layers, or they are carefully transferred, one
by one, into market-baskets and carried to market on an
easy spring wagon, if not by steamboat or railroad, by
which jarring or jolting will be avoided. Treated in this
manner, they will be in a marketable condition, and one
basket will sell for as much as four, carelessly picked,
thrown into baskets, and tumbled out of them into a barrel
or wagon-box.

Ripe fruits may be kept in good condition for a consid-
erable period of time, in an ice-house, or in some of the
recently-invented fruit-preservers, and even in very cool,
dry cellars. The vessels in which they are deposited
should be perfectly clean, that no unpleasant flavor may
be imparted to them. Peaches have been sent to the East
Indies, by being properly packed in ice ; and it may be
that methods of packing and preserving will, before long,
be discovered, that will give us access to the markets of
other countries, even for our perishable summer fruits.
We have seen Seckel pears in a very good state of preser-
vation in January. The science of ripening and preserving
fruits is but in its infancy, and horticultural societies
that have the means will be doing a great public service
by offering liberal premiums that will incite to experiment
on the subject.

Winter Fruits intended for long keeping are transferred

440 GATHERING FRUITS, ETC.

by hand from the baskets in which they are gathered on
the tree, into larger ones in which they can be carried into
a dry, cool room, where they are laid in heaps, which may
be three or four deep, where" they may remain for a couple
of weeks, during which time they will have parted with
considerable moisture and be quite dry. They will then
be fit for packing.

Clean, new barrels should be procured, and the fruits
should be carefully assorted. For shipping to distant or
foreign markets, the . best only should be selected ; all
bruised, wormy, knotty specimens being laid aside for
home consumption. They are then placed in the barrels,
by hand, arranged regularly in layers, so that no spaces
will exist, by which the fruits may shift, roll, or knock
against one another. The barrels are then tightly headed
up, so that the head presses firmly on the fruits; some
people recommend placing a layer of clean moss or soft
paper, both on the bottom and top of the barrel ; but this
is not necessary where the packing and heading are per-
formed carefully. After packing, the barrels must be
sent to market in such a manner as never to be jolted or
rolled, any more than they would be on men's shoulders,
or an easy spring wagon or sled, or by a water convey-
ance.

On shipboard, the barrels should be placed in the coolest
and dryest place. It is perfectly idle to gather, pack, or
ship fruits in any other way than this to foreign markets.
American apples are frequently sold in Liverpool at auction
for half what they would have sold for in New- York, on
account of their bad condition. I saw this in 1849, when
Newtown pippins were selling at twelve and a half cents
apiece in the fruit-shops.

Winter fruits for home consumption should be care-
fully assorted, keeping the best, the poorest, the sound,
the bruised, and the earlier and later ripening varieties
all separate ; when sound and bruised, early and late, are

PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC. 441

all thrown together promiscuously, they cannot fail to
decay speedily and to lose their flavor ; for two or three
decaying apples in a heap or barrel will taint the flavor
of all, and hasten the decay of those around them. This
arrangement into grades and classes is, therefore, absolutely
necessary even for the fruits needed for family use; and
when they are so arranged, the sound, long-keepers are put
into clean, new barrels, carefully, by hand, and the barrels
headed up tightly and placed in a cool, dry cellar or fruit-
room. The bruised ones can be laid in a place by them-
selves for immediate use. Every barrel, when packed,
should be marked.

Winter Pears, as a general thing, require to be brought
into a warm temperature one or two weeks before they
are wanted for table use. All the baking and stewing,
and even many of the table varieties, may be treated ex-
actly like appples.

PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC.

In all that relates to the labor of preparing fruits for
market, great care is requisite, and we cannot do bet-
ter than to copy the following very concise and practical
directions prepared by a large and experienced shipping-
house from long observance of the requisites needed for
success :

" Packing. — In packing Apples, Pears, Berries, etc., do
not face your fruit more than it will bear, for if a buyer is
once deceived in buying a mark of fruit, he will discount
the mark in buying again, or refuse to buy it at all ; while if
it runs uniform, and gives satisfaction, it is eagerly sought
after, and the seller can get increased price by the compe-
tition. Also bear in mind that good fruit, etc., well put
up and reaching here in good order, always sells, even
when the market is glutted ; while fruit, etc., poorly put

442 PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC.

np, can sometimes be scarcely given away, thereby caus-
ing dissatisfaction to the shipper on account of poor re-
turns, and disgust to the receiver, because they have had
to sacrifice it, when a little pains taken with the article
would have caused a different result. Nothing is gained
in packing fruit, etc. (which is sold by the package), in
short packages, that is for barrels to be less than flour-bar-
rel size, or baskets to hold twelve or fourteen quarts,
when they should hold half a bushel, or in boxes less than
measure intended. If fruit is too ripe or soft to pack in
full-size packages, pack in those of half or even quarter-
size, but by all means give full measure, and try to pack
your packages so tight that, upon arrival, they will open
full and not look as though there was not enough of the
article to fill them. Besides fruit, etc., will come a longer
distance and arrive in far better order, by being packed
full, even to slight jamming, than if packed loose. With
the rough and severe handling, that all packages get more
or less, the articles are very likely to be badly bruised in
coming. All packages should be neat and clean ; and bar-
rels, boxes, and crates sold with the articles should, if pos-
sible, be new, as the package helps show the contents to
better advantage, and will sell the better from the evident
pains bestowed upon it.

"Marking. — Always mark each package plainly and
neat, with the name or initials of consignor, and the net
weight or count of contents of each.

"Shipping. — All perishable fruits, such as peaches, plums,
berries, etc., should be sent by the quickest conveyance.
Receipts should be taken from transportation compa-
nies. Advices, with a full and correct invoice, should be
sent by mail. A duplicate invoice should be put in one
of the packages, marked Bill. There is nothing so vexa-
tious to a commission house, as the receipt of consign-
ments not properly or distinctly marked, and no advices of
the same.

PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC. 443

" Handling. — All fruit, of whatever kind, should be han-
dled with the greatest care, so as not to bruise it, even
slightly, as oftentimes where a little bruise does not show
when fruit is packed, in ten or twelve hours afterwards
the article is half, if not totally destroyed, causing the
fruit in contact with it to also decay, and injuring the sale
of the same, as buyers will discount imperfect or decayed
fruit. Great care should also be taken in handling the
packages after fruit is packed, as a blow or fall will pene-
trate through the entire package, bruising the contents
oftentimes badly.

"Apples. — Assort those uniform in size and quality, pack
in clean barrels; take out one head, commence packing by
placing a tier of apples with their ends to the closed head
of the barrel, then fill up without bruising the fruit, shake
down thoroughly, and fill the barrel so full that the head
must be pressed in with a lever, flattening the last tier of
apples, and even starting the juice. Nail the head and
hoops with four-penny nails, turn the barrel over, and on
the head not opened mark plainly the variety in each bar-
rel. Apples packed in this way show a fine, handsome
face when opened.

" Pears. — This delicate fruit must be packed and shipped
when it is fully matured and before it has ripened, so as to
insure arrival in good order. Pears are not as elastic as
apples. Line the sides, top, and bottom of the barrel or
package with straw-paper, to prevent the fruit being
stained by the wood of the barrel or package. Assort and
pack same as apples, except placing the blossom-end of
the fruit upon the end not opened. When the barrel is
full, press the head in firmly without starting the juice.
Summer Pears, if over two days on the way, should be
ventilated, otherwise the package should be tight, as the
fruit will ripen more uniformly and hold its color
better."

Packing Pears for Distant Markets. — The French send

444 PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC.

away more pears to foreign markets than any other peo-
ple. Some small importations of their winter sorts have
actually been made by some of the New York fruit-
dealers. They pack them in small boxes, either round
or square, such as a man can lift and carry easily in his
hands.

They cover the bottom and sides with very dry moss
or soft, dry paper, well calculated to absorb moisture.
They then wrap each fruit in the dry, soft paper, and lay
them in layers, the largest and least mature in the bottom,
and fill all the interstices with dry moss or paper. I have
seen these boxes opened in London, in the finest con-
dition, after being packed a month. They are so tightly
packed that the slightest movement cannot take place
among them, and yet no one presses upon another. The
dry moss and paper that separate them, absorb any mois-
ture ; and if one decays, it does not affect others.

Some of the Paris confectioners and restaurant-keepers
preserve fruits very successfully in barrels, packed in lay-
ers, and the interstices filled up with powdered charcoal.
The barrels are kept in a dry, cool place, about forty
degrees, where they are not subjected to changes of tem-
perature. Apples, pears, grapes, almonds, nuts, and pota-
toes, are all preserved in this manner.

"Peaches. — Pack in stave baskets holding half of a
bushel ; they are firmer than splint baskets, and protect
the fruit better. Sort uniform as to size and quality. Fill
your baskets rounding full. Tie a cover over the top of
the basket, so that the fruit will not be liable to shake. Or
they can be packed in slat crates holding a bushel, with a
partition across the crate at an equal distance from each end.

" Quinces. — Sort to run uniform, pack in barrel same as
apples, except that the blossom end of the fruit should be
placed to the end not opened. When the barrel is full,
press in head harder than for pears, but not as tight as
apples.

'PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC. 445

" Strawberries. — All large berries should be packed in
quart boxes or baskets, twenty-four or thirty to the crate.
In filling the boxes, put in berries of uniform size, reject-
ing all soft ones ; face the box with nice fruit, and fill it
rounding full, so that when packed in crates the upper box
will slightly press the fruit in the lower box. The small
varieties of strawberries can be packed in a little larger
crate, or packed in half-bushel drawers, four drawers to a
stand.

" Raspberries should be packed in a quart box or
basket. The fruit should be carefully picked, boxes well
filled, and packed in crates of twenty-four and thirty
quarts.

" Currants can be packed in half-bushel or bushel
drawers, and equally as well in baskets ; and when filled
should be well rounded.

" Cherries. — Same as currants ; but think a clean half-
bushel basket preferable, with a paper or cloth cover.
They should be well packed.

" Blackberries. — Pack in boxes holding a quart or pint
— twenty-four or thirty-six quarts to a crate. Fill and sort
the same as strawberries. When the crate is full, place a
sheet of straw-paper over the upper row of boxes, so that
it will exclude the air and help retain the color of the fruit.

" Plums. — The fancy kinds should be packed in small
boxes or fancy baskets ; while the common kinds can be
packed in half-bushel or bushel boxes or baskets, the same
as peaches." They sell best in small packages.

(trapes, when fully ripe, should be taken, a single
cluster at a time, and all imperfect berries cut from the
bunch. They can be packed in three, five, six, ten, or twelve-
pound boxes ; or if going but a short distance, in clean
baskets of ten to twenty pounds, and covered with a
cloth. In packing, take off the cover of the box, line the
inside with thin white paper, commence filling with whole
bunches, pack close-as possible without jamming, fill up

446 PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC.

with bunches, parts of bunches, then single grapes,
but with a stem, so that all space is occupied, and the
fruit projects from the top, from a quarter to half
an inch. Turn over the paper used in lining, nail the
cover-points down, reverse the box, and paste a label, stat-
ing the variety of the grape, on the cover that was not
opened.

Fruit-Rooms. — A fruit-room is a structure set apart
exclusively for the preservation of fruit. Its great requi-
sites are, perfect security from moisture or dampness, ex-
clusion from light, and a uniform temperature. If these
points are obtained, no matter where, how, or of what
material the fruit-room be constructed. It may be built
of stone, brick, clay, or wood, above or below ground, as
circumstances or taste may dictate.

A good, dry, and cool cellar is as good a place for
keeping fruit as can be provided ; but the great objection
to cellars used for other purposes is, that currents of air
are frequently admitted, and too much light, by which the
temperature is changed, decay promoted, or the fruits dried
and shriveled. There are, also, other objects that un-
avoidably saturate the air more or less with moisture.

Where a fruit-room is built on the surface of the ground,
it should be on the ice-house principle of double walls and
doors, to prevent access of either heat or cold from with-
out. A good cellar or cave, built in a dry, sandy, or
gravelly bank, or side-hill, will answer every purpose.
The walls may be of stone, brick, or timber ; the roof should
be thick, with a slope sufficient to throw off water freely,
and the earth about should also be so graded, that water
will flow away as fast as it falls. Provision may be made
for lighting and ventilating in the roof, and the door or
doors should be double.

The interior should be fitted up with shelves and bins,
with places for barrels or other articles, in which fruits
are packed.

PACKING, MARKING, SHIPPING, ETC. 447

A cheap and effective fruit-house has long been a desid-
eratum, and many patents have been obtained. The ma-
jority of them, however, have proved failures, and often-
times expensive ones. The best house we have seen is
that of Rees & Houghton, Philadelphia, Pa., from whose
circular we extract the following :

"When the purity of the atmosphere is obtained by
excessive ventilation, not only is the temperature of the
apartment increased, but the ice is melted with great
rapidity. To dry the atmosphere by the use of absorb-
ents is also a very expensive and troublesome process.

" In a room cooled to 38° Fahrenheit, and kept perfect-
ly dry, the decomposition of fruit is very slow. Fruit
may be kept sound and good for three or four months, or
longer. The cooler the house, the drier it will naturally
become, but when the natural tendency is aided by philo-
sophical construction, it will be perceived that the object
may be more easily accomplished.

" Decomposing organic matter will of course throw off,
and, in fact, generate moisture ; but when the process -of
decomposition is reduced to the lowest point, or suspended
altogether, then less moisture will be present.

" The foul gases, or odors, emanating from decaying
vegetables being volatile, are easily removed ; but the
removal of moisture, or aqueous vapor, is more difficult.

" The last difficulty — the removal of moisture, without the
use of artificial absorbents — has been overcome by this in-
vention, in the most perfect manner, without any ex-
pensive machinery, or any daily cost in working the house.

" The apparatus can be applied to large or small rooms,
or even closets and refrigerators, with equal ease and suc-
cess ; and from the very nature of things, being based
upon the strictest natural laws, is the only plan that can
produce the desired results, without the use of absorbents
or driers.

" Fruit, in a state of moist decay, on being put into the

448 PACKING, XAKKIXG, SHIPPING, ETC.

fruit-room, directly becomes dried to such a degree that
all the moisture on the decaying spots disappears, and the
spots themselves become covered with a dried pellicle-
like court-plaster, and the rot ceases. The drying process,
however, is not such as to produce shriveling in apples or
pears, for the reason that only the external moisture is
removed, and the interior flesh of the fruit remains un-
changed.

" In this connection may be demonstrated the fallacy of
the common idea that fruit just gathered from the tree
must undergo a process of sweating before it is fit to be put
into the cellar or fruit-room. The simple truth is, that fruit
which has been cooled by any means will always sweat
when it is brought into a warm atmosphere, not because
the juice passes out of it, but because the moisture in hot
air always condenses on a cold surface. On the contrary,
fruit taken from the tree, on a warm day, and put imme-
diately into a cold fruit-room, never sweats. The process
of sweating in apples and pears may be repeated a hun-
dred times by cooling the fruit in a cellar, and then bring-
ing them suddenly into a hot room. A cold apple will
always sweat in hot air.

''The ordinary working temperature obtained by means
of ice, is about 38° to 40° Fahrenheit. But by the use of
suitable apparatus, with salt and crushed ice, as in the ice-
cream freezer, a room may be cooled below the freezing
point."

Attention to Fruits in the Cellar or Fruit-room* — The
decay of fruits is caused either by bruises or by a fungus,
or species of mildew, that increases rapidly and attacks
all the sound fruits within its reach. It is, therefore,
necessary to examine fruits frequently, and remove all
that show any symptoms of decay, before they have
either affected others or tainted the atmosphere of the
room.

DISEASES. 449

CHAPTER III.

DISEASES AND INSECTS.
SECTION 1. — DISEASES.

The Fire -Slight of the Pear, Apple, and Quince. —
This is one of the most formidable diseases to which fruit-
trees are liable. Whether it is caused by the sun, the
atmosphere, or an insect, remains in doubt, some cases
favoring one opinion, some another. It attacks the trees
at different periods of the growing season, from June to
September, and generally in the young parts first ; the
leaves flag, the sap Incomes thick and brown, oozing out
in- globules through the bark, and emitting a very dis-
agreeable odor, and the diseased branch or part turns
black, as if it were burned by fire. When the pear-tree
is attacked it is difficult to save it, the disease spreads so
rapidly. In the apple and quince it is less fatal, rarely
killing more than a portion of the tree even if left to its
own course. The only remedy is, to cut away instantly
the blighted parts, into the sound wood, where there is
not the slightest trace of the disease, and burn them up
immediately.

It is thought by some that young trees growing very
rapidly are more subject to it than older trees growing
slowly ; and that warm sunshine, with a sultry atmosphere
after rain, is apt to be followed by much blight. We have
always regarded the cases favoring such an opinion as
accidental.

Twig Slight. — This attacks the young shoots of the
current season's growth on apple, pear, quince, mountain
ash, etc., causing them to suddenly wither and become

450 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

brown at early or mid summer. The cause is unknown
and the injury is not materially great. The remedy is in
cutting away at the first appearance. In this season, 1871,
it is more abundant than ever before.

Apple Blight. — This is a disease of serious character,
inasmuch as it invades and destroys many orchards. Like
the dreaded fire-blight of the pear, there seems no pre-
ventive. It attacks a whole branch or limb, and some-
times one quarter to one half of the top is destroyed, ere
to the common observer it is apparent. No remedy is
known except to cut away and destroy the memento of
one's losses.

. Sitter Jtot. — This disease, by some attributed to want
of appropriate nourishment to the tree, and by others to a
fungous growth, is as yet but little understood. High
culture, the application of lime to the soil, etc., are
recommended as remedies.

JRust, or Fungus, Mildew, and Cracking.— This disease is
more general in the pear than the apple, and it is more
apparent and destructive on some varieties than upon
others ; yet these varieties have not been so closely ob-
served and noted as to make it safe to enumerate them.
Suffice it that varieties longest in cultivation, most pro-
ductive, and in confined situations, arc most liable to it.
It appears to be a fungous growth, presenting, when
viewed by the microscope, a mossy, spongy character,
occupying the skin, so as to prevent the development of
its tissues, and results in checking the growth at that point,
thus creating a deformity. When the malady spreads,
as it sometimes does, over a half or more of the fruit, it
tends to a deeper nature, and causes the fruit to crack
open, and become corky and worthless. During a week
in the early part of June, this year (1871), this disease
appeared among pears in some localities to an alarming
extent, but soon ceased to spread.

DISEASES. 451

Pear-leaf Blight. — This disease has already been al-
luded to in treating of pear seedlings. It is a sort of
rust that appears on the leaves in July or August, first as
small brown spots ; these spread rapidly over the leaves
until they arc completely dried up and growth stopped.
It appears in a certain spot as a center, from which it
spreads. Whether it be an insect, a fungus, or some at-
mospherical cause that produces this blight, is unknown.
Certain cases favor one or other of these opinions. More
minute investigations are wanted on the subject.
* To avoid its evil effects as far as possible, the great
point is, to get a rapid, vigorous growth, before mid-sum-
mer, when it usually appears. Seedlings grown in new
soils do not appear to be so much affected as in old.
Where stocks are affected very early in the season, they
become almost worthless, on account of the , feebleness
produced in both stem and roots by such an untimely and
unnatural check. Some special applications, such as coal
cinders, iron filings, copperas, etc., have been suggested,
but no evidence has yet been produced of their efficacy.

The Gum in Stone Fruits. — The cherry, plum, apricot,
and peach are all more or less subject to this malady.
The cherry is particularly liable to it in the West. It is
produced by different causes, such as a wet soil, severe
pruning, pruning at an improper time, violent changes of
temperature, etc. The gumming of the Cherry in the
West is considered by some to be owing in a great mea-
sure to the bark not yielding naturally to the growth of
the wood, and hence they practise longitudinal incisions
on it. The dhcrry-tree has a very powerful bark, and in
some cases it may not yield naturally to the expansion or
growth of the wood. We have seen about a foot of the
trunk of a cherry-tree several inches smaller than the
parts both above and below it. The bark was as smooth
as glass on it, the first rind being unbroken, whilst on the
large parts this was quite rough. This was a case arising

452 DISEASES AXI> INSECTS.

from the obstinacy of the bark, and could only be
remedied by longitudinal incisions on the small part.

It is most probable that the extent and severity of this
disease in the West is owing to violent changes from a
hard frost to a bright sun and rapid thaw, by which the
sap becomes deranged, and accumulates in masses. Trees
that are branched near the ground will be less likely to
suffer than those with tall, bare trunks. Where it has
made some progress in any tree, pare off the diseased
bark, clean off all the gum, and let the surface dry up ;
then apply a plaster of grafting composition, or a solution
of gum shellac in alcohol, put on with a brush.

When the stone fruits arc pruned severely in the spring,
the sap does not find sufficient vent ; it accumulates in
masses and bursts the bark. This fact should always be
kept in view in pruning, and a sufficient supply of active
buds be left to absorb the sap.

The Yellows in the Peach. — This is supposed to arise
from negligent cultivation. It exhibits itself in a yellow,
sickly foliage, feeble shoots, and small fruits prematurely
ripened. It is said to be contagious. Trees exhibiting
these symptoms should instantly be destroyed. To avoid
it, propagate only from trees in perfect health and vigor.

Mildew on the Peach. — The young shoots, leaves, and
even the fruit of certain varieties, and especially the gland-
less ones, such as Early Anne, Early Tillotson, etc., are
attacked by this. The only remedies are, to give the
trees a dry, good soil, that will keep them in a vigorous
condition, and to syringe freely twice a day when it
begins to appear. The gooseberry suffers seriously from
the mildew, owing mainly to the heat of our summers. In
Northern New York, in Maine, Vermont, and Lower
Canada, the finest large English varieties are brought to
greater perfection than in warmer districts, and with good
culture almost come up to the English standard. In a
cold, damp-bottomed soil at Toronto^ almost on a level

DISEASES. 453

with Lake Ontario, fine crops are produced with compara-
tively little difficulty from mildew or rust. This would
indicate as a remedy, a cool soil and situation, and mulch-
ing the roots to keep them cool. The plants should be
renewed every three or four years, and they should be kept
vigorous by liberal manuring and good culture.

JKot and Mildew of the Grape. — Both the rot and mil-
dew on the grape have been attributed to various causes,
none of which seems to prove reliable. Both diseases
seem to come and go with seasons, now here and there
excessive upon one variety one season, and another the
next, evidently to us bearing the impress that it is
miasmatic or sporadic, and developed according to the
atmosphere and Condition of the vine as regards health
and vigor. The preventive seems to be in the free ,use
of sulphur, by dusting the vines and keeping the influence
of the sulphur thereon, from the time the seed is
formed until the coloring is at least half-completed.

The Plum-tree Wart or Black-Knot. — The cause of this
disease is still a matter of doubt and uncertainty. Some
hold to the opinion that it is a gall produced by an insect,
others that it is of fungous origin. The latter opinion is
entitled to the greatest weight. We do not believe that
insects have any agency whatever in producing this dis.
case. Cions should never be taken from a diseased tree.

Cutting out the diseased branch clean to the sound
wood, the moment the knots begin to appear, is an
effectual remedy, and they should all be burnt up. We
have saved trees six inches in diameter, that were af-
fected on the trunk so seriously, that one third of its
thickness had to be removed to get below the disease.
After it was cut out, we applied a plaster of grafting
composition, covered it with a cloth, and in two years
it was all healed over and sound.

Plum-trees arc so neglected in the country, that mul-
titudes of them arc now standing literally loaded with

454 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

these warts — not even an inch of any branch free from
them, the most disgusting objects in the way of fruit
trees that can possibly be imagined.

The Curl of the Leaf in the Peach.— This disease causes
the leaves to assume a reddish color, to become thick,
curled, and deformed, and finally to perish. It is supposed
by many to be caused by insects ; but it is really induced
by a sudden change of weather. In proof of this we may
adduce the fact that peach-trees under glass are never
affected with this disease; and the more sheltered the
position is, the less is the injury.

A number of warm days, that cause the expansion of
the young leaves, followed by a cold rainy day, is almost
sure to produce it to some extent; and the more severe
and protracted the cold, the more, extensive and fatal it is.
The peach-trees in Western New York suffered more from
this in 1849-50 than in the ten years previous, owing to a
protracted cold time in each season after the young tender
leaves had expanded. In both these seasons the check was
so severe, as not only to produce this disease in its worst
form, but the gum also ; for the sap not being absorbed
by the leaves, became stagnant, sour, and corroded, and
burst the bark. Trees in sheltered gardens suffer less than
those in exposed orchards. There is no possible way of
guarding against this ; and the only remedy known to us
is, to pick off the diseased leaves the moment the weather
changes, that new healthy ones may be produced.

SECTION 2. — THE PRINCIPAL INSECTS INJURIOUS TO
FRUIT TREES.

Aphis or Plant-Louse. — There arc several kinds of
these. The two most troublesome to fruit trees are the
green and black, small soft insects that appear suddenly
in immense quantities on the young shoots of the trees,
suck their juices, and consequently arrest their growth.

INSECTS. 455

The apple, pear, and cherry are especially infested with
them. They multiply with wonderful rapidity. It is said
that one individual in five generations might bo the pro-
genitor of six thousand millions. Were it not that they
are easily destroyed, they would present an obstacle almost
insuperable in the propagation and culture of trees.

There are many ways of accomplishing their destruc-
tion. Our plan is to prepare a barrel of tobacco juice,
by steeping stems for several days until the juice is a
dark brown, like strong beer ; we then mix this with a
solution of soft-soap, or soapsuds. A pail is filled with
this, and the ends of the shoots where the insects are
assembled are brought down and dipped into the liquid.
One dip is enough. Such parts as cannot be dipped are
sprinkled liberally. It is applied to the heads of large
trees by means of a hand or garden syringe. It should
be done in the evening. The liquid may be so strong as
to injure the foliage, hence it will be well for persons
using it the first time to test it on one or two subjects
before applying it extensively. This application must be
repeated as often as any of the aphides make their appear-
ance. The dry weather of mid-summer is generally the
time most favorable for their appearance. The season of
1871 has been remarkable for the prevalence of this pest
all over the country, not merely on fruit but on forest
trees. It has been so in Europe also.

The Woolly Aphis or American Blight. — This is a
small insect, covered with a white woolly substance that
conceals its body. They infest the apple-tree in particu-
lar, both roots and branches, living upon the sap of the
bark, and producing small warts or granulations on it by
the punctures. They are more particularly troublesome
on old rough-barked trees, as they lodge in the crevices,
and are difficult to reach. The wind carries them from
one place to another by the light down in which they arc
enveloped, and thus they spread quickly from one end of

456 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

a plantation to the other. Not a moment should bo lost
in destroying the first one that makes its appearance.
Where the bark is rough it should be scraped smooth ; if
the roots be affected the earth should be removed, and
every part washed, and every crevice filled with the fol-
lowing preparation, recommended in Harris's Treatise :
" Two parts of soft-soap and eight of water, mixed with
lime enough to bring it to the consistency of thick white-
wash, to be put on with a brush." A solution of two
pounds of potash in seven quarts of water will answer
as well. Fresh earth should be put upon the roots.

The Scaly Aphis or Bark - Louse. — This is a dark-
brown scale insect, that infests the bark of the apple-tree.
They are of a dark brown color, just like the bark, and
are not easily seen unless looked for. They attach them-
selves closely to the bark, and sometimes are so numerous
as to form a complete coating. They seldom appear on
thrifty-growing trees in good soil ; but where the soil is
damp and cold, and the trees growing feebly, this insect
may be looked for. June is the time to destroy them,
when they are young. At other times they are hard, and
able to resist any ordinary remedy. The same application
recommended for the aphis, applied to them with a hard
brush, will effect their destruction. Where they have
been left for a long time undisturbed, and have pretty
well covered the tree, the quickest and best remedy is to
destroy tree and all, unless it possesses some extraordinary
claim for indulgence. Harris mentions a reddish brown
bark-louse found on his grape-vine, arranged in rows
one behind another in the crevices of the bark.

The Apple-tree Sorer is a very troublesome insect in
some sections of the country. In Western New York
we have never met with it but in two or three instances,
in very old, neglected orchards, that had stood for twenty
years in grass. The beetle is striped brown and white,
and is about three-fourths of an inch long. It deposits its

INSECTS. 457

eggs in June, in the bark of the trees near the ground.
Here the larva is hatched, becoming a whitish grub,
which saws its way into the tree, perforating it in all
directions, sometimes completely girdling it. The most
eifectual method to destroy them is, to insert the end of a
wire into their burrow, and killing them. The same
means are taken to guard against them as against the
peach-tree grub, viz., placing a mound of ashes around
the base of the trunk in the spring, and allowing it to
remain until after the season in which the beetles deposit
their eggs. It prevents them from reaching the soft bark
at the surface of the ground, the place usually selected.
It is stated in Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees, that " the
beetles may be destroyed in June by building small fires
of shavings in different parts of the orchard."

The Apple -Worm — Codling-Moth. — The ravages of
this insect on the apple are becoming quite alarming, and
unless its destruction be pursued with prompt and perse-
vering efforts, our apple-orchards will soon cease to be
profitable. The moth appears in New England, New
York, and other places similar in climate, about the mid-
dle of June ; farther south earlier. It deposits its eggs
in the eye or calyx of the young apple ; in a few days
they hatch, and the worm burrows into the core of the
fruit. It can be traced by the brownish powder which it
casts out behind it. In some three weeks it attains its
full size, and escapes from the apple through a hole which
it makes in the side, and takes shelter in the scales of the
bark of the tree or such other suitable place as it can find.
It has been supposed that they remain in their cocoons
all winter, but from recent observations they complete
their transformations in two or three weeks, and raise a sec-
ond ' brood. Southward it is even supposed that they
reach the third generation in one season.

Means of Destruction. — 1st. Scrape and clean the bark
of the trees thoroughly early in spring, and see that no
20

458 DISEASES AND IXSECTS.

cocoons are left in the crevices. 2d. Examine all barrels,
bins, shelves, etc., where apples have been stored in cel-
lars or fruit-rooms. 3d. Place bandages of old cloth, car-
pet, or rags of any kind around the trunks and large
branches of every tree, say by ] st of July, to trap the
worms ; examine every week or two, and kill all worms
that have been trapped. 4th. Pick or knock off every
wormy fruit before the worm escapes, and destroy ; pick
up all that drop, and destroy in the same way.

The Canker -Worm. — This insect is confined chiefly to
]STew England ; we have never seen it in New York.

They generally emerge from the ground in March.
According to Professor Harris, some rise during the late
autumn and winter months. The female has no wings,
but crawls up the tree, and lays her eggs on the branches
in May, in clusters of 60 to 100 in each, glued to each other
and to the bark by a grayish varnish impervious to water ;
the little worms fall upon the leaves, and, when numerous,
devour them all, leaving only the mid-ribs. They leave
the trees when about four weeks old, and enter the ground.
Their effects are most visible in June, when the trees, di-
vested of their foliage, appear as if scorched by fire.

As the female cannot fly, the great point is to prevent
her from crawling up; for this purpose various means
have been tried and are recommended. One of the most
effectual is to tie strips of canvas around the tree and cover
them with tar, renewing the tar during their whole season
of rising, or from October till May. Another is, to make
a close-fitting collar of boards around the base of the tree,
and keep the boards covered with tar. Mr. J. Dennis, of
Portsmouth, R. I., patented a circular leaden trough filled
with oil, which proves an effectual preventive.

Caterpillars. — Of these there are many kinds that are
more or less destructive to the- foliage of fruit trees; but
the Caterpillar described by Professor Harris as the
American Tent Caterpillar, is the one that commits such

INSECTS. 459

general and extensive devastation in our orchards, and
especially in certain seasons. The moth deposits its eggs
in July, in large rings, on the branches of the trees ;
these remain in that state until the following season, when
they are hatched in the latter end of May or beginning of
June. Each ring produces three or four hundred cater-
pillars, and these weave a sort of web to live in. The
appearance of a tree with three or four of these tents upon
it, and the leaves completely devoured, is really frightful.
There are two ways of destroying them : one is, to examine
the trees carefully in February or March, at pruning time,
and destroy the clusters of eggs by cutting off and burn-
ing the branches on which they are found. The next is
to destroy the caterpillars in their tents after they are
hatched. There are various ways of doing this, according
to people's fancy and ingenuity. The quickest and most
effectual method is to take a ladder, ascend the trees, and
remove every nest with the hands. The early morning
should be chosen, when they are in the nests. Some put
a round brush on a pole and put it in the nests, and by
giving it a few turns web and all are removed.

There is another caterpillar, Datana ministry which is
a yellow brown in color, and feeds in clusters side by side,
fairly stripping branch after branch completely of its
foliage. Watchfulness and immediate destruction on
sight are the only known remedies. Their season of de-
structive labor is in August and September.

The Cherry and Pear Slug. — This is a most destruc-
tive insect. They appear in June and July for the first,
and a second brood afterwards, small, slimy, dark-brown
slugs on the upper surfaces of the leaves of the cherry
and pear. They devour greedily the parenchyma of the
leaves, leaving only the bare network of veins. In a
short time growth is completely stopped.

Stocks for budding require careful watching, for a day
or two of these slugs may prevent them from being worked

460 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

that season. We destroy them by throwing fine earth
taken up with the hand among the trees, and by ashes or
slaked lime, when the earth is not sufficiently dry and
fine. The caustic properties of lime and ashes render
them more certainly destructive to the slug, and they
should always be used in preference to common earth,
where only a few trees are to be gone over.

A liberal syringing with the tobacco and soap liquid
recommended for the aphis, but in a weaker state, is ser-
viceable after the ashes and lime. It must be remembered
that one application will seldom be sufficient. Some
escape even to the third or fourth ; but in all cases the
warfare should be sustained whilst one remains. They
are generally most troublesome in warm and dry seasons.

TJie Currant- Worm.— This is a small, light, yellow worm
that eats the leaves of currants and gooseberries in June.
The remedy is to dust the leaves with powdered white
hellebore, as soon as it first appears, and repeat daily till
the worm disappears. We have also used dry fresh-
slaked lime successfully.

The Curculio or Plum - Weevil. — This is a small grayish-
brown beetle, nearly a quarter of an inch long ; the wing-
covers form two little humps on the back, which give it
a roundish appearance, and it has a long crooked snout,
well adapted to its destructive propensities. They can
fly, but are not active; and by jarring the part on which
they stand, suddenly, they fall to the ground, draw in
their legs, and appear dead. It deposits its egg in a
semicircular incision which it makes in the young fruit ;
it there hatches, eats into the fruit, and causes it to fall
while yet green. In some places it destroys the entire
crop of plums, apricots, and nectarines, and attacks even
the cherry and the apple. The peach, even, is not wholly
exempt, notwithstanding its coat of down. Almost every
remedy that ingenuity can devise has been tried. This
whole book would not contain what has been written

INSECTS. 461

on the subject in one year alone. Yet no complete, effec-
tual remedy has been discovered. The strongest liquid
applications of lime, soap, and tobacco, the most power-
ful and offensive odors that repel any other insects, are
entirely harmless and inoffensive to the curculio. There
seem to be really but two means worthy of being re-
sorted to. One is, to pave, or in some other way harden,
the surface of the ground, so that the grubs cannot
enter it to complete their transformations. This is found
efficient where no other trees are in the immediate vicinity
not paved. We have seen many instances where good
crops were obtained by this mode. The fact that they
are, as a general thing, less troublesome in stiff clay
soils than in light porous ones, is alone a proof of the
efficacy of a stiff or impenetrable surface soil.

Add to this the picking up of fruit containing the grub
as soon as it drop-; from the tree, and before the worm
has a chance to escape.

To accomplish both these ends, some people have
planted their plums and apricots in a small inclosure by
themselves, adjoining the hog-pen, and as soon as the
fruits begin to drop these animals are admitted, and
gather all up, and at the same time tread the ground
so firmly that it is almost as good as if it were paved.

This is probably the easiest and best way to insure a
crop of the fruits attacked by this insect.

Another way is, to jar the tree daily, from the moment
they begin to appear, which is when the fruit is the size
of a pea, until they have disappeared, or the fruit begins
to ripen, when it is no longer attacked. This is our own
method, and is successful. The insects are easier jarred
off in the cool of the morning, while they are torpid.

Before commencing to jar them down, a white sheet or
clotfi, wide enough to cover all the ground under the
branches, should be spread to receive the insects as they
fall, so that they may be destroyed. This was recom-

462 DISEASES AND INSECTS,

mended through the " Genesee Farmer," by David Thomas,
forty years ago. At the West a machine or hand butting-
barrow has been introduced for jarring and catching the
curculio in large orchards, but it is said to injure the trees
by the severe blows consequently necessary with its use.

From repeated observations, I am inclined to believe
that it is quite sensitive to cold, for it is well known that
in the cool of the morning it is always in a comparative
state of torpor ; and in the cold seasons of 1849-50, when
our peach trees and fruit were so greatly injured, the cur-
culio was driven off, and we had a most abundant crop
of plums. A cold day or two may not affect it ; but
when it continues for two weeks, as in the years referred
to, it seems to be rendered powerless for that season.

Ants. — These are not very destructive, yet they some-
times do considerable injury to beds of seedlings, by
making their hillocks among them, and they also infest
ripe fruits.

Boiling water, oil, or spirits of turpentine, poured on
their hillocks, disperses them ; and if wide-mouthed bot-
tles, half-filled with sweetened water or syrup, be hung
among the branches of a tree when the fruit is attaining
maturity, ants, wasps, flies, and beetles of all sorts that
prey greedily upon sweets, will be attracted into them.

Mr. Downing, who recommends this as a " general ex-
tirpator suited to all situations," says that " an acquaint-
ance caught in this way, in one season, more than three
bushels of insects of various kinds, and preserved his
garden almost entirely against them."

A gentleman in Detroit, who was very careful of his
garden, informed me that he had pursued this method
of trapping insects with results that perfectly astonished
him. He had to empty the bottles every few days to
make room for more. A very good way of trapping and
killing ants is, to besmear the inside of flower-pots with
molasses, and turn them on their mouths near the hillock ;

INSECTS. 463

the insects will soon assemble inside on the molasses,
when they are easily destroyed by a handful of burning
straw.

The Peach -Tree Borer. — This is a most destructive
insect when allowed to increase for a few years without
molestation. We have seen whole orchards of fine trees
ruined by them. They sometimes attack even young
trees in the nursery, and commit serious depredations on
their collar, rendering them in many cases quite unfit for
planting. Their multiplication should be prevented by
all possible means. The eggs are deposited in summer
on the base of the trunk, near the collar, where the bark
is soft. There they are hatched, and bore their way
under the bark of the tree, either in the stem or root, or
both, producing an effusion of gum. Where trees are
already affected, the proper course is, to remove the earth
from around the cpllar of the root, clean away the gum,
destroy any cocoons that may be found, trace the grub
through its holes in the tree, and kill it ; then fill up
around the tree with fresh earth, and place a shovelful or
two of ashes around the base. One of the best orchards
in the vicinity of Rochester was at one time nearly ruined
by the prevalence of this grub, when it changed pro-
prietors, and the present one adopted and followed the
plan recommended above, until there is not the trace of
one left. The ashes or slaked lime should be applied
every spring, and at the end of summer may be scattered
about the tree ; both ashes and lime form an excellent
dressing for the peach.

The Rose-Bug. — The eggs of this insect are laid in
the earth, where they are hatched, and from which the
bug emerges about the rose season.

In some seasons and in some localities they appear like
grasshoppers in vast multitudes, and commit extensive
ravages, not only on the rose but fruit trees and all other
green things. Syringing the plants with diluted whale-

464 DISEASES AND INSECTS.

oil soap is the only remedy aside from hand-picking, which
is most effectual. One gallon of whale-oil soap to three
gallons of water syringed over them, when on the tree,
effectually destroys them. In some cases fruit trees have
been protected by covering them with millinet.

Leaf-Rollers. — In May and June these insects may be
found on the leaves of fruit trees, and especially on the
pear ; they form for themselves a sort of cocoon out of the
leaf. The leaves attacked by them should be removed and
destroyed, in order to prevent their increase. The eggs
are deposited on the young leaves by some of the multi-
tudes of spring beetles.

SECTION 3. — ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS AND
FRUIT TREES.

JBirds. — As a general thing, birds are more the friends
than the enemies of the garden. Many of them subsist
in greater part on insects, and thus perform services
that are by no means appreciated. The early cherries
and grapes are generally the greatest sufferers by them,
and various devices are practised to frighten them away,
the most cruel of which is shooting, which must, however,
in some cases be resorted to. Moving objects resembling
the human figure, bits of looking-glass or tin suspended
among the branches, etc., are often effectual. Dwarf
trees are easily covered with thin netting supported on
poles and fastened at the base of the tree.

Field Mice. — The most effectual preventive is clean
culture. Leave no grass, weeds, rubbish, or heaps of
stones around the garden or orchard, and the mice will
seldom be troublesome. Their operations of girdling
are principally carried on beneath the snow, and when
this is firmly trodden down as soon as it falls, it ob-
structs their way. A correspondent of the "Horticul-
turist" states that he has found tin tubes fixed around
the base of the tree, an effectual remedy ; and Mr.

ANIMALS INJURIOUS TO FRUIT TREES. 465

Hooker, of Rochester, has successfully driven them off
with poison. He takes a block of wood six inches long
and three or four square, and bores it lengthwise with
an inch-and-a-half auger nearly through, and places in
the lower end some corn-meal and arsenic. He places
these blocks among the trees, mouth inclined down-
wards, "to keep the powder dry."

Great destruction of orchards was committed by the
mice in the winter of 1869-70, and since then various con-
trivances have been resorted to. One is to incase the lower
part of the tree in a thin, flexible wooden covering. Corn
and corn-meal mixed with poison and scattered around
the trees has also been employed, with more or less success.

Moles. — These are easily poisoned and driven off, by
putting pills of flour mixed with arsenic into their holes,
and shutting them up. We have seen them banished
by bits of dried codfish placed in the entrance of their holes.

Cats often commit serious depredations on trees by
scratching the bark. Quite recently we saw a large
number of beautiful fruit trees nearly ruined by them.
A few briers secured around trees in the vicinity of the
house, where they frequent most, will be a sufficient
protection.

Hogs. — It is not generally supposed that these ani-
mals will attack trees ; but we have heard of a Western
farmer who turned in a large number of them to con-
sume the corn that had been grown in his young
orchard. When the corn began to grow scarce they at-
tacked the trees, and not one out of several hundred
but was completely girdled— the bark gnawed off as far
up as the brutes could reach.

Where it may be desirable to turn hogs into an or-
chard, unless the feed be very abundant, the trees should be
protected around the base with thorns, briers, or some
prickly brush.

Habbits may be deterred from causing injury by rub-
20*

466 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

bing the body of the tree with fresh blood once in a week
or so during winter, or by wrapping them a foot or two
above the ground with thick, firm paper.

CHAPTER IV.

NURSERY, ORCHARD, AND FRUIT-GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

THE following are the principal implements used in the
propagation, pruning, and cultivation of fruit-trees :*

SECTION 1. — IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL.

The Subsoil Plow (see fig. 160) is the great reformer
of the day in the preparation of soils of all qualities and

Fig. 160. — SUBSOIL PLOW.

textures, for nursery, orchard, or garden trees. It follows
the ordinary plow in the same furrow ; and the largest
size, ETo. 2, with a powerful team, can loosen the subsoil
to the depth of eighteen inches. No. 1 will be sufficient
in clear land when the subsoil is not very stiff.

The One-Horse Plow. — Similar to the common plow
used by farmers. It is a labor-saving implement for cul-
tivating the ground among nursery-trees or orchards

* A share of the engravings used in the illustration of this chapter arc from
the elaborate Implement Catalogue of R H. Allen & Co., No. 189 and 191 Water
street, New York City.

IMPLEMENTS OF THE SOIL.

467

closely planted. The horse should be steady, the man
careful, and the whiffle-tree as short as possible, that the
trees need not be bruised. It should neither run so deep
nor so near the trees as to injure the roots.

The Cultivator. — This, with the plow, obviates the

Fig1. 161.— CULTIVATOR.

necessity of spade-work, and, in a great measure, hoeing.
If the ground be plowed in the spring, and the cultivator
passed over it once every week or two during the
summer, all the hoeing necessary will be a narrow
strip of a few inches on each side of the row. The
double-pointed steel-toothed, with a wheel in front, as
shown in fig. 161, is the best.

The Tree-Digging Plow. — This implement facilitates
the work and entirely supersedes the spade in the labor
of digging trees of the usual size in the nursery, where an
entire plot is to be cleared. " It is constructed (see fig.
162) with two beams, one to run On each side of the row of
trees, two sets of handles, and a peculiar share, much in
shape like the letter U. This share is very sharp, the
horizontal part runs under, and the vertical ones on each

468 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

side of the trees, and the roots are thus smoothly cut off,
while the trees remain standing. The plow is of course pro-
pelled by horses and guided by two plowmen. It is an
admirable implement for root-pruning young trees, espe-
cially evergreens, in place of the old practice of removing

Fig. 162. — TREE-DIGGING PLOW.

them in order to cause them to throw out fibres and make
balls suited to future removal.

The One-Horse Cart. — This is an indispensable machine
in the nursery, orchard, or large garden. Four-wheeled
wagons are difficult to unload, and require a great deal of
space to turn in. The cart can be turned in a circle of
twelve or fourteen feet, and the load discharged in a mo-
ment, simply by taking out the key that fastens the body
to the shafts, throwing it up, and moving the horse forward.
Our carts are about six feet long and three wide in the
body, shafts six feet long, wheels four and a half feet
high, and tire two and a half wide, to prevent them from
sinking into the ground. The box is about a foot deep,
and when large loads are to be carried a spreading board
is put on the top with brackets. Cost from $30 to $50.

The Wheelbarrow (fig. 163). — Every man who has a
rod of ground to cultivate should possess this machine.
In small gardens it is sufficient for the conveyance of all
manures, soils, products, etc., and in larger places it is al-

IMPLEMENTS OP THE SOIL.

469

ways needed for use, where a cart cannot go. The handles
or levers should he of ash or some tough wood, and the

Fig. 163. — WHEELBARROW

sides and bottom of any light wood. The wheel is soft
wood, shod with iron.

The Spade (fig. 164).— The best kinds
of these in use are Ames' cast-steel;
excellent, strong, light articles. They
work clean and bright as silver. There
are several sizes. For heavy work,
trenching, draining, raising trees, etc.,
the largest should be used.

The Shovel (fig. 165).— This is used
in mixing, loading, and spreading com-
posts and short manures. The blade
should be of cast-steel.

The Forked Spade (fig. 166).— This
resembles a fork. It has three to five
stout cast-steel tines, at least an inch
wide, and pointed. It is used instead
of a spade to loosen the earth about
the roots of trees, to turn in manures,
etc., being much less liable to cut and
injure them than the spade.

The Dung-ForJc (fig. 167).— There
Those of cast-steel, cut out of a solid

Fig. 164.— SPADE.
are several kinds.

470

NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

plate, with three or four tines, are the best, light and dura-
ble; they are sometimes made with six tines. It is the
only implement proper for loading, mixing, or spreading
fresh rough manures with facility and dispatch.

Fig. 165.— SHOVEL.

Ficr. 166. — FORKED SPADES.

The Pick. — This is a useful, and even indispensable
implement in the deepening or trenching of soils with a
hard subsoil that cannot be operated upon with the spade.
It consists of an ash handle, and a head composed of two
levers of iron pointed with steel, and an eye in the centre
for the handle.

The Garden-Line and Reel (fig. 168).— The line should
be a good hemp cord, from one eighth to one fourth of an
inch in diameter, attached to light iron stakes about eigh-
teen inches long. On one of the stakes a reel is attached.

IMPLEMENTS OF -HE SOIL.

471

This is turned by means of a handle, and the line neatly
and quickly wound up.

The Hoe. — This is a universal instrument in this coun-
try. In some cases,
all the gardening
operations are per-
formed with it. Its
uses in tree culture
are to open trenches
for seeds, to cover
them, to loosen and
clean the surface of
the ground from
weeds, etc. There
are two kinds, the
draw hoe (figs. 169,
170, 171) and the
Dutch or thrust hoe
(fig. 172) ; this we do
not use at all. Of
the different kinds
and forms of, the
draw1 hoe, the most

generally

useful is
a cast-

Fig. 167. — DUNG-FORKS.

the square,

steel plate, about six inches long and four wide, with a
light, smooth handle. The semicircular
and triangular hoes may be advantage-
ously used in certain cases.

The Pointed Garden Hoe (fig. 173) is
useful among borders and small plants.
The Hake (fig. 174) is used to level,
smooth, pulverize, and clean the surface
of the ground after it has been spaded
Fig. 168,-LiNE AND or hoed> or to prepare it for seeds, etc.
REEL. They are of different sizes, with from

472 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

six to twelve teeth. The best are those of which the
head and teeth are drawn out of a solid bar of steel.

Those that are welded and riveted soon get

out of order.

SECTION 2. — IMPLEMENTS TOR CUTTING.

The Pruning Saw. — This is used for cutting
oif branches, either too large for the knife, or so
situ.-ited that the knife cannot operate. It has
various sizes and forms. Some are jointed,
and fold like a pruning-knife ; others are like
the common carpenter's handsaw, but smaller
and stouter. Two forms are shown at fig. 175.

The Sow-Saw (fig. 176).— This is the most
generally useful form for the gardener or nur-
Fig. 169.— seryman. The blade is very narrow, and stiff-
SQUAKE ene(i k an arch kack> jt is fastened at both

ends by a rivet to the screw on which the
back turns, and by which it is adapted to different pur-
poses. It is indispensable in making horizontal cuts close
to the ground, as in heading down.

Some are set with a double row of teeth on one side,

Fig. 170. — TRIANGULAR DRAW-HOE. Fig. 171. — SEMICIRCULAR DRAW-HOB.

and the edge is much thicker than the ]?ack ; these work
much easier than those toothed in the ordinary way, and
it would be an object to have them where much saw-prun-

IMPLEMENTS FOR CUTTING.

473

ing is to be done. Wherever the saw is use*d, the cut
surface should be pared smooth with the knife, to facili-
tate its healing.

Long-handled pruning-saws are sometimes recommended,
but never should be
used in pruning fruit-
trees, if possible to
avoid it. The branch
to be operated should
be reached by means
of a ladder, if need
be, within arm's
length, and cut with
a common saw.

Hand Pruning-
Shears (fig. 177).—
There is a kind of
these made now,
that, having a mov-
ing center, as in the
figure, make a smooth
draw cut almost
equal to that of a
knife, and it is a very
expeditious instru-
ment in the hand of
a skilful workman. In pruning out small
dead branches, shortening in peach-
trees, etc., it will perform four times as

much work as a knife.

Fig. 173. — POINTED

Pruning Scissors (fig. 178).— These GARDEN-HOE.
scissors cut as smoothly as a knife, and can be easily car-
ried in the pocket, ready to take away a small branch
wherever it may chance to be observed.

Lopping or Branch Shears. — These are very strongly

-DUTCH OB
THRUST-HOE.

474 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

made, with* long wooden handles, and are used for cutting
thick branches from trees, shrub-
bery, hedges, etc. One form is
shown in fig. 179.

Pole Pruning Shears. — These
resemble the hand-shears, but are
worked by a string passing over a
pulley, and are fixed on a pole of
any required length. They are used
in cutting cions, diseased shoots,
etc., from the heads of lofty stand-
ard trees.

Grape Scissors. — These are small,
sharp-pointed scissors, as in fig. 180,
for thinning bunches of grapes.

The Pruning-Knife. — The best
for general purposes are those of
medium size, with a handle about
four inches long, smooth, slightly
hollowed in the back ; the blade
about three and a half inches lon^

Fig. 174.— GARDEN RAKE. , „ . , . n ,

three quarters 01 an inch wide, and
nearly straight (fig. 181). For very heavy work a larger

Fisr. 175. — PRUNING-SAWS.

size may be necessary. " Saynor's " (English) knives of
this kind are unsurpassed in material and finish.

The Budding -Knife. — This is much smaller than the

IMPLEMENTS FOR CUTTING.

475

pruning-knife, with a thin, straight blade, the edge some-
times rounded at the point. The handle is of bone or

ivory, and has a thin,
wedge-shaped end for
raising the bark. Bud-

^™HB*0 ders have various fan-
Fig. 176.— BOW-SAW. . , ,

cies about shape and
size; one form is given in figure 182.

The Grafting- Chisel — This is used for splitting large

Fig'. 177. — HAND PRUNING-SHEAES.

stocks ; the blade is about two inches long, and an inch and
a half wide, in the shape of a wedge ; the edge curved so
as to cut, and not tear the bark ; the handle eight or ten

inches long, at the end of
which is a narrow wedge to
keep the split open until the
cion is inserted. (See figure
183.) The whole is of steel.

middle, the wedge

Fig. 178. — PEUNING-SCISSORS.

Some are made with the blade in the

at one end, and

a hook to hang

it by on the

other.

Mr. David S.
Wagner, o f
Pulteney, 1ST.
Y., has invent-
ed an ingenious

implement for Fig. 179. — LOPPING OR BRANCH SHEAES.

grafting grapes; as it is patented, those who desire to
know about it may inquire of the inventor.

476

NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

Tree-Scraper (fig. 184). — This is made of heavy plate-
steel, with a long, jointed
handle for scraping upper
branches, or a short one
Fig. 180.— GRAPE SCISSORS. for the trunks.

SECTION 3. — LADDERS AND FRUIT-GATHERERS.

Ladders. — Of these there are many kinds. For the
fruit-garden, where
the trees are low,
the self-supporting
ladder (fig. 185) is lgl PRUNING.KNIPE.

the most conveni-
ent and best. It should be made of light wood, with flat

steps, so that a person
can stand upon them
and work. The back,
or supports, consist of

Fig. 182. — BUDDING-KNIFE.

Fig. 183. — GRAFTING CHISEL.

one or two light pieces of timber, fixed at the top with

hooks and straps, so as to be contracted or extended at

pleasure. A ladder of

this kind, six or eight

feet high, will answer

all the demands of a

garden.

Orchard Ladders are of various kinds. For pruning or
gathering the fruit from lofty trees, a great length of lad-
der is necessary ; it is therefore desirable that the mate-
rial be as light as
possible consistent
with the necessary
strength. Some-

times these long lad-
ders are composed
of several smaller ones, that fit into one another, all

Fig. 184. — TREE-SCRAPER.

LADDERS.

477

mounted on a frame with a small wheel, by which they
are easily moved about.

The Folding Ladder is a very neat and convenient ar-
ticle for many purposes. The
inside of the styles is hol-
lowed out, and the steps are
fastened to them by means of
iron pins, on which they turn
as on hinges, so that the two
sides can be brought together,
the steps turning into the
grooves or hollows in them,
the whole appearing like a
round pole — B. It is more
f^ easily carried and placed where
1 wanted than the ordinary lad-
der. A represents it open,
and B closed (fig. 186).
There are also Self-supporting Orchard-Ladders, com-
posed of three upright pieces of any required length, and
spread widely at the bottom, to give them stability. Two

185. — FRUIT-LADDER.

186. — FOLDING LADDER.

of the sides are fixed, and are furnished with steps all
the way up. The third is longer and movable, and can
be extended or contracted at pleasure.

A piece of board wide enough to stand upon can be
extended from one side to the other, resting upon the
steps at whatever hight it is desirable to work. On the
movable side a pulley is fixed, by which the baskets of
fruit are let down as they are gathered. Two persons or

478

NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

more can ascend and work on a ladder at the same time.

Fig. 187 represents one of these ; a, #, the two fixed

sides ; (7, the movable one. It
is considerably used in France.
The Orchardistfs Hook is a
light rod, with a hook on one
end, and a movable piece of
wood that slides along it.

The person gathering fruit
draws ti.e branch towards
him with the hooked end, and
retains it there by means of
the sliding piece which is
hooked to another branch.
This is an indispensable in-
strument in gathering fruit

Fig. 187.-SELF-SUPPORTING from j t

ORCHARD LADDER. _. _ ,

1-i'Tuit- Gatherers. — Of these
there are many designs by which the fruit may be taken

Fig. 188. — GRAPE-GATHERER.

from the tree by a person standing on the ground. They

FJ£. 189.— HAND SYRINGE.

answer very well for gathering a few ripe specimens for

FRUIT-GATHERERS.

479

immediate consumption. The ladder, hook, and hand are
the only safe and expeditious fruit-gatherers. Some are
made in the form of 'a vase of wood or tin placed on the
end of a pole. The edge of the vase is toothed, and
when the stem of the fruit is taken between two of the
teeth, and slightly twisted, it drops. Others are composed
of a pair of shears on the end of a pole, to which a basket
is attached that slides up and down the handle.

Fig. 190. — BARROW-ENGINE.

The Grape- Gatherer resembles a pair of shears com-
bining the property of pincers. They cut a bunch of

480 NURSERY AND FRUIT GARDEN IMPLEMENTS.

grapes, and hold it firmly until it is brought down.
These are very useful for gathering a few bunches of
grapes from the top of a house or trellis (fig. 188).

SECTION 4. — MACHINES FOR WATERING.

The Hand-Syringe (fig. 189). — This is a very useful
implement for sprinkling and washing the foliage of trees
in dry weather. There are various kinds, made of tin,
copper, and brass, and sold at various prices. Whatever
sort is used should have several caps (A] to regulate the
quantity or shower of water discharged ; and they should
also have an inverted or " gooseneck " one (.B) to throw
the stream, if necessary, on the under side of leaves, or in
any oblique direction.

There are, also, hand-engines, barrel-engines, and bar-
row-engines, all of which are
very useful. In every large
garden there should be both the
syringe and one of these en-
gines; for watering is a most
important aifair in gardening
under our hot sun and pro-
Fig. 191.-WATERING-POT. tKlCted d™UtllS-

The Barrow - Engine (fig.

190) is the most useful for general purposes ; it is easily
moved from one place to another. The improved kinds are
easily worked, and the water-box, being provided with a
strainer, excludes anything likely to derange its operations.
The Garden Watering-pot (fig. 191). — This is a tin
or copper vessel that may hold from one to four gal-
lons of water, with a spout six or eight inches long, by
which the water is discharged. There should be a rose or
roses, as in cut, to fit on the spout, pierced with large or
small holes, by which the water can be discharged in a
shower. Every pot may have several roses, pierced with
holes of various sizes, to adapt them to different purposes.

Almonds . 434

American Blight 455

Animals Injurious to Fruits and

Fruit-Trees 464

Ants 462

Aphis or Plant-Louse 454

Apple and Pear as Espaliers, Train-
ing 239

" as a Dwarf on Paradise Stock.237

" Blight 450

" for Dwarfs 207

" Pruning the 220

" Tree Borer 456

" Trees, Cordon , .207

" Worm 457

Apples, Autumn 335

" Choice Garden Varieties.. .356

" Distance apart to Plant 217

" for Dwarfs 356

" Forms of. 62

" for Ornament and Preserv-
ing 353

" List of, for the Eastern and

Middle States 355

" Packing 443

" Summer 331

" Winter 340

Apricots 378

" Distance apart to Plant — 217

" Planting 190

" Pruning and Management. 260

" Training 211

Barberries 167

Bark, Inner 25

" Outer 26

Bark-Louse 456

Berberries .414

Bitter Rot 450

Blackberries 166, 415

Packing 445

Blackberry, Culture of the 317

Blossoming in Alternate Years 55

li Period of 52

Branches, Curved 29

Erect 29

Horizontal. 29

Lateral 29

Main 28

Secondary 29

Bud, Insertion of. 149

" Treatment of the Growing 151

Budding, Propagation by 89

" Time of 148

Buds 464

" Adventitious 37

" Axillary 37

" Compound and Simple Fruit. . 39

'4 Cutting and Preparing 90

" Dormant or Latent 38

481

Buds, Fruit 39

Inferior 38

Lateral 37

Leaf 38

Names and Characters of. 37

Nature and Functions of 35

Preserving 90

Stipular 38

Superior 38

Terminal 37

Untying 150

Canker- Worm 458

Cats 465

Cherries 380

" Bigarreau 382

" Distance apart to Plant 217

" Duke and Morello 384

" Forms of. 64

" Heart 380

'» Packing 445

*4 Pyramidal-headed Standard 251

" Select List of. 386

" The Duke Class of 250

" The Morello Class of 250

Cherry and Pear Slug 459

" Pruning as a Pyramid ,.251

" " as a Dwarf or Bush .253

" *' " '• Standard. 254

" " an Espalier 252

" as a Standard 250

" Pruning the 249

" Pyramidal Form for 209

" Trees, Setting Standard. . ..190

Chestnuts 167, 435

Cions 94

Climate 53

Codling-Moth, Destroying the 457

Cordon, Dwarf Apple trained in

Horizontal 207

" Training of Pear-Trees. . .243

Cracking 450

Curculio or Plum-Weevil 460

Currant as an Espalier 311

" as a Pyramid 310

" Manuring the 312

" Pruning the 310

" the Black 311

" Worm 460

Currants 165, 404,

" Distance apart to Plant 218

li Packing 445

Custard Apples 434

Cuttings, Propagation by 83

Diseases, Apple Blight 450

Bitter Eof 450

Cracking 450

" Curl of the Leaf in the

Peach 454

" Fire-Blight 449

482

INDEX.

Diseases, Gum in Stone Fruits 451

" Mildew 450

" Mildew of the Grape 453

Mildew on the Peach 452

Pear-leaf Blight 451

Plum-tree Wart or Black

Knot .453

Rot of the Grape 453

Rust or Fungus 450

Twig-Blight. 449

Yellows in the Peach 452

Distances to Plant :

Espalier Apple-trees 218

" Cherry-trees 218

" Plum-trees 218

Horizontal Cordon Trees 219

Espalier Pear-trees. 218

Oblique Cordon Trees 219

Pyramidal Apple-trees 218

Pear-trees ... 218

Plum-trees 218

Upright Espalier Pear-trees .... 218

Double Working 100

Draining 73

Dwarf Bushes 157

" Cherry-trees 253

" Standard Cherry-tree 254

Dwarfs and Dwarf Standards 213

" the Apple for 207

Espalier Cherry-trees 252

" Currant as an 311

" Fan-shaped ..262

" Peach-tree 261

" Square 267

" Trees 158

Fig, Propagation of the 305

• Protecting the 307

11 Pruning the 306

" Soil for the 305

" Training in Graperies 307

the 306

Figs.... 167,429

Filbert, Form of 211

Filberts 167, 435

" Distance apart to Plant 218

Fire-Blight 449

Flowers, Different Characters of. . . 53

" Parts of 49-52

Fruit and Kitchen Garden 201

Branches, Management of. . ..235

Characters of 56

Classification of 56

Size of 60

Different Parts of 58

Form of 61

Handling 443

Garden, Inclosures for 197

Laying out 199

Proper 199

Selection of Trees... 204

Situation of 196

Soil for 197

Trellises for 198

Walks in the 202

Water for 204

Gathering 437

Marking 442

Packing 441

[ Fruit, Ripening of 439

" Rooms 446

" Shipping 442

" Spurs 33

" Trees, Diseases of 449

4i " Names, Descriptions,
and Offices of the dif-
ferent Parts of 21

Fruits, Attention to, in Cellar or

Fruit-Room 448

Color of . . . . . . . 64

Different Properties of 59

Flavor of 65

for an Orchard, Varieties of. 181

Select Varieties of 329

Garden, Mixed 201

Germ:nation,Air in 68

Conditions of 67

Exclusion of Light in 68

Heat in 68

" Moisture in 67

Grafting, Cleft 97

'" Composition 95

" on the Root, Whip 96

" Propagation by 93

Whip 97

Grape 160

" Cuttings... 84,161

" . Layering the 160

" Mildew' of the .453

" Rot of the 453

Grapery, Border for 290

Cleaning the Vines in a. . .293

Position of 290

" Pruning the Vines in a 292

" Regulating the Tempera-
ture in^the 294

" Syringing Vines in the. . ..293
" To Prevent Mildew in the.294
" Thinning the Fruit in a ... 293

" Vines for ......291

Grapes, Buildings for Foreign 289

" Culture, Pruning, and

Training of. ... 271

" Distance apart to Plant 273

" Foreign 425

" Foreign in Cold Vineres..2S8

" Garden Culture of 272

" Hardy Native 271

Native 416

" Number of Acres in Culti-
vation 272

Packing 445

" Position of the Vine or Bor-
der for. . 273

" Pruning 275

" Soils for 272

" Trellis for 273

" Varieties introduced since

1851 271

" Vineyard Culture of 282

Grape-vine, Planting the 273

Gooseberry, Pruning the 307

Gooseberries 165, 405

Distance apart to Plant 218

Gum in Stone Fruits 451

Heart or Perfect Wood 26

Hedge-Fences for Orchards ISO

INDEX.

483

Heeling in 172

Hogs. / 4(55

Hybridization 54

Implements, Barrow-Engine 480

Budding- Knife 474

Cultivator 467

Dung-fork 4(59

Forked Spade 469

For Nursery, Orchard,
and Fruit Garden . . .466

" Fruit Gatherers 478

Garden Line and Eeel .470

" Grafting-Chisel 475

Grape-Gatherer 473

Grape Scissors 474

Hand Pruning Shears. 473

Hand Syringe 430

Hoe........ 471

Hoe, Pointed Garden. 471

Ladders 476

Ladders. Folding 477

" Lopping or Branch

Shears.. 473

One-horse Cart 468

" One-horse Plow 466

" Orchardist's Hook 478

Pick 470

" Pole Pruning Shears. .474

Pruning Knife 474

Pruning Scissors 473

Rake 471

Saw, Bow 472

" Pruning 472

Shovel 469

Spade 469

Subsoil Plow 466

Tree-digging Plow... 467

Watering-Pot 480

Wheelbarrow 468

Insects, Ants 462

Aphis or Plant-Lonsc 454

Apple-tree Borer 456

Apple Worm . . 457

Canker Worm 458

Caterpillars 458

Cherry and Pear Sing 459

Codling Moth 457

Curculio 460

Currant Worm 460

Injurious to Fruit-trees 454

Leaf-Rollers 464

Peach-tree Borer 463

Rose-Bn<r 463

Scaly Aphis 456

Woolly Aphis 455

Labeling 169

Labels for Nursery Trees 168

Layer, Common 87

Mound 83

Serpentine 87

Layering, Propagation by 86

Laying out the Fruit-Garden 199

Leaf-Rollers 464

Leaves, Different Forms and Char-
acters of 46-49

Leaves, Structure and Functions of 40

Lemons 433

Limes... 433

Manure, Liquid x 79

" Modes of applying 78

" Quantity to be applied.... 78

Manures 74

" Importance of 74

u Preparation of 75

Manuring 323

Medlar, Treatment of 249

Mice, Field 464

Mildew 450

" on the Peach 452

Moles 465

Mulberries 1€6, 416

Mulching 193, 323

Nectarine, Pruning the £70

" Training the 211

Nectarines 386

"• Distance apart to Plant.. 217

New Varieties, Production of 81

Nursery 121. 154

" Management of Trees in... 147

" Soil and Situation for 121

Oranges 430

Orchard 176

Orchard, Arrangement of Trees in. .185
Preparation of Soil for an. 180
Selection of Trees for an. . 184
Selection of Varieties for. 329

Situation of 176

Soil for 179

Trees, After-management

of... 193

" Trees for Market or Com-
mercial 187

Orchard-House, Trees in Tubs or

Pots in the 297

" Varieties of Trees

for 297

Orchard-Houses 294

Management of... 298

Orchardist, Commercial 182

Market 182

Orchards, Hedge-Fences for 180

" Inclosures for 180

" Planting 191

Protection for 176

Packing 170

Pawpaws 434

Peach as a Dwarf Standard 210

" Curl of the Leaf in.. 454

" Mildew on the 452

" Pruning the 254

" Tree as an Espalier 261

" Tree Borer 463

" Tree, Forming a Standard. . ..256
u Tree in the Form of a Vase. .258

" Tree, Pruning the 258

" Tree, Root- Pruning the 258

' Trees, Dwarf 134

Trees, Fan -shaped Espalier... 262

Trees, Setting 189

Trees trained on a Wall 262

Yellows in the 452

Peaches 388

" Distance apart to Plant .. .217

" Forms of 64

" Packing 444

" Select Garden. . . ... 396

484

INDEX.

Peaches, Select List of 396

Pear as a Pyramid 208

44 Pruning the 220

41 Seedlings 127

" in Wine-glass Form .241

Pear-leaf Blight 451

Pear-Trees, Cordon -trained 243

" Cutting back Pyram-
idal 224

First Pruning of 231

Management of Fruit

Branches of 235

Oblique Cordon 244

Objects of Cutting

Back 224

Pruning the Yearling.. 227

Pyramid 224

Second Pruning of 232

Summer Management

of 230

Third Pruning of 235

Training Dwarf Stand-
ard 223

Training Standard 221

Treatment of Growing

Shoots of 233

Pears, Autumn 359

44 Distance apart to Plant 217

44 Forms of 63

44 Packing 443

44 Select Assortment of 376

" Summer 356

Pinching 109, 222

Pith 26

Plantations, Different Kinds of 175

Planting Orchards 191

the Raspberry 312

Plants, Exhalation of Moisture

from 43

Plowing, Subsoil 71

Plum as a Dwarf Pyramid 210

as a Pyramid 209

Beach 136

Canada 135

Chickasaw 136

Horse 135

Myrobolan 136

Pruning and Management of. 268

Soil for 179

Trees, Setting 190

Wild 135

Plum-tree Wart or Black-Knot 453

Plums 397

41 Distance apart to Plant 217

44 Forms of 64

44 Packing 445

" Select List of 403

Pomegranates 433

Practice 100

Propagating Fruit -Trees, Differ-
ent Modes of 80

Propagation by Division of Plants. 82
Pruning and Management of the

Peach 254

Pruning and Preparing Trees for

Planting ... 191

Pruning and Training the Quince.. 248
" Mechanically Considered. . 105

Pruning,Root

" Season for

the Apple and Pear

" as Espaliers

vt on Paradise Stock

" Apricot

" Cherry as a Pyramid

" Standard

" Currant

** Grape

" Gooseberry.

Nectarine

" Peach Tree

" Plum

" Raspberry

Pyramidal Training

Pyramids

Quince, Angers

Pruning and Training the

Training the

j Quinces

" Distance apart to Plant. . .

" Packing

Rabbits

Raspberries 166,

" Distance apart to Plant

" Packing •

Raspberry, Manuring the

Planting the

Pruning the

' Summer Pruning the. .

Training the

' Winter Protection for. ,

Root, Different Parts of the

" Grafts, Planting

" Treatment of

Pruning the Peach-Tree

Roots, Growth of

Rose-Bug

Rotation of Crops

Rust or Fungus

Sap, Circulation of

" Wood

Scaly Aphis

Seed, the

Seedlings, Mazzard

Seeds, Propagating by

Sloe

Soil, Annual Cultivation of

" in Nursery. Treatment of

" Different Kinds of

Soils

" Modes of Improving

Spongioles —

Staking

Standards

• " Dwarf 146,

Stem

" Growth of

Structure of

the Different Parts of

Stocks

Doucin

for Apples

Cherry

Apricot and Nectarine

Plum

Mahaleb ...

104
108
220
£t9
£37
£09
251
SCO
310
275
307
270
258
£08
312
208
155
130
.248
211
377
217
444
465
407
218
445
314
312
312
313
314
316

22
146
150
258

23
463
123
450

26
456

66
131

323

159

193

152

155

124

131

134

135

132

INDEX.

485

Stocks,Paradise 124

" Peach 133

" Pear 127

" Planting Peach 134

" Plum 134

" Preparation of 149

" Preparing and Saving Seeds

for... 132

" Propagation of 124

" Quince.. 128

" Raising Seedling 124

" Small Morello 132

" Transplanting 137

Strawberry, Culture of the 318

Transplanting the 319

Strawberries 165, 410

Packing 445

Suckers, Propagation by 88

Taking up Trees from the Nursery.lCS

Training the Apple 207

Apricot and Nectarine 211

Cherry... 209

Filbert 211

Peach 210

Pear 2C8

Quince 211

Plum 209

Trees, After - management of Or-
chard 193

" Ageof 212

" Arrangement of, in Orchard. 185
" Arrangement in Regard to

Position 216

" Distance apart to Piant 216

" Fastening to Walls and

Trellises 268

" for Market or Commercial

Orchard 187

" Form of 204

" General Remarks upon the

Structure of 21

Trees, Heeling in 172

" Labeling 169

" Mulching 193

" Packing 170

" Permanent Plantations of

Fruit 175

" Planting 216

" Protecting against Ex-
tremes of Temperature. .324
" Pruning and Preparing for

Planting 191

" Renovating Pyramidal

Apple and Pear 324

" Selection of 184

" Setting Peach 189

" Setting Plum 190

" Setting Standard Cherry. . . .190

" Staking 193

" Taking up 216

Trellis for Oblique Cordon Trees. ..247

Trellises 198

Trenching 72

Twig Blight 449

Varieties, Selections of 213

Vineyard Culture of Grapes 282

Depth to set the Plants in. 286
Distance apart to set the

Vines in 285

Kinds of Plants for 285

Methods of Training in. . .286
Preparation of Soil for. . .284

Pruning a 286

Shelter for 284

Soil and Situation for 283

Time to Plant a 285

Walks in the Fruit Garden 202

Walnuts 167, 436

Watering 324

Wine-Glass Form of Pear Trees 241

Woolly Aphis... 455

Yellows on the Peach. . . . . .452

INDEX TO THE DIFFERENT FRUITS.

The standard names are in Roman letters ; the synonymous names in Italics.

Almonds.

Bitter Almond... .. 434

Ladies1 Thin-shell ' 434

Soft Sweet Shell 434

Sweet Hard-shell 434

Apples.

Alexander 335

American Golden Russet 340

American Summer Pearmain 331

Autumn Straivbewy 338

Autumn Sweet Bough 335

Bailey's Sweet 341

Baldwin 340

Baltimore 341

Batchelor... ...350

Beauty of Kent 335

Belmont 341

Ben Davis 341

Benoni 331

Bently's Sweet 341

Bethlehemite 341

Bonum 342

Broadwell 342

Buckingham.. 342

Bullock's Pippin 340

Cable's Gittifloiver 341

Campfield 335

Canada Reinette , . .342

Cannon Pearmain 342

Carolina Red June 332

Carolina Watson 332

Carter's Blue .. .336

486

INDEX.

.343
.349
.342
..343

Cayuga Bed Streak 351

Chenaniro Strawberry. 336

Cogswell 342

Cooper's Market 343

Cornell's Fancy 336

Cullasaga 343

Domine 343

Duchess of Olden burgh 336

Dutch Mignonne 343

Dyer 336

Early Harvest 332

Early Joe 332

Early Pennock 332

Early Red Margaret 332

Early Strawberry 332

Early Sweet Bough 333

English lied Streak

English Russet

English Sweet

Equinetely

Esopus Spitzenburgh

Fallawater .......... ....S4A

fall Cheese of Virginia 339

Fall Pippiu '. 336

Fall Queen ... 342

Fall Wine 337

Fameuse 344

Garden Royal 337

Gate 341

Gilpin 344

Golden Russet of Western N. Y.. . .344

Golden Spice 336

Golden Sweet 333

Gravenstein 337

Green Cheese 344

Green New town Pippin 347

Green Sweet 344

Grimes' Golden Pippin. 345

Hawthornden 337

Hay's 352

Hightop Sweet 333

Hocking 334

Hominy 340

Honty Greening 344

Howe's Virginia Crab 345

Hubbardston Nonsuch 345

Jefferis 337

Jeniton 349

Jersey Sweet 338

Jonathan 345

Junaluskee .345

Keswick Codlin 338

King of Tompkins County 345

Lady Apple 345

Lady's Sweet 346

Large Yellow Bough 333

Late Strawberry 338

Lawver

Limber Twig...

.346
346
,334

Pearrnain, 340

Little Bomanite 344

Lowell

Lyman's Pumpkin Sweet ".'.'.'.'.

Magnum Bniium 342

Maiden's Blush 338

Man arum 339

Melon . '.346

Menagere 346

Michael Henry Pippin 346

Monmouth Pippin 346

Moore's Sweet ....347

Mother 347

Munsou Sweet 347

Myer's Nonpareil 339

Newark Siceeting 335

Newtown Pippin 347

Newtown Spitzenburgh 347

New York Pippin 341

Nickajack 348

Northern Spy 348

Ohio Nonpareil 339

Ohio Wine 337

Orange Siveet 347

Ortley 348

Peck's Pleasant 348

Pennsylvania Bed Streak 352

Phillip's Sweet 348

Pomme Gris 349

Pomme Boyale 336

Porter 339

Poughkeepsie Busset 343

Primate 333

Pryor's Red 349

Pumpkin Sweet 338

Queen Anne 338

Rambo 349

Ramsdell's Sweet 349

Rawle's Janet 349

Red Astrachan 333

Red Canada 349

Bed Juneating 332

Redling 343

Bed Spitzenburqh 339

Bed Sweet Pippin 347

Red Winter Pearrnain 350

Beinette Canada 342

Rhode Island Greening 350

Ribston Pippin 350

Richard's Graft 339

Bichfield Nonsuch 349

Bomanite 349

Rome Beauty 339

Roxbury Russet.. .' 350

Slierwood's Favoiite 336

Shockley 350

Smith's Cider 350

Smokehouse 351

Snow 344

Sops of Wine 340

Stanard 351

Steetes Bed Winter 340

St. Lawrence 339

Summer Hagloe

Summer Queen 334

Summer Rose 334

Summer Sweet Paradise 334

Swaar 351

Sweet June 333

Sweet Swaar 335

Tallow Pijrpin 338

Talman's Sweet 351

Tetofsky 334

Tewksbury Winter Blush 351

Townsend 334

Trenton Early 334

INDEX.

487

Txlpehocken 344

Twenty-Ounce 351

Vandervere of New York 347

Vermont Pumpkin Sweet 338

Wagoner 352

Washington Strawberry 340

Westfield Seek-No-Further 352

White Pippin 352

White Winter Pearmain 352

William's Favorite 335

William's Red 335

Willow Twig 352

Wine 352

Winesap 353

Winter Rose... 348

Winter Sweet Paradise 353

Winter Wine. 352

Woodman's Long. 348

Yellow Bellflower 353

Yellow Newtowii Pippin 353

Apples — Crab.

Cherry Crab 354

Hyslop 354

Lady Crab 354

Large Red Siberian Crab 354

Large Yellow Siberian Crab 354

Montreal Beauty 354

Oblong Siberian Crab 354

Red " " 354

Transcendent 354

Yellow Siberian Crab 354

Apricots.

Alberge de Montagamet 378

Beauge 378

Blenheim 378

Breda 378

Canino Grosso 378

Dubois 378

Early Golden 378

Early Masculine 379

Early Moorpark 378

Hemskirke 379

Kaisha 379

Large Early 379

Montagamet 378

Moorpark 379

Orange 379

Peach 379

Red Masculine 379

Sain t Am broise 379

Sardi nian 379

Shipley 378

Turkey 379

Berberries.

Berberis dulcis 144

Common Red 414

Sweet-fruited 414

Blackberries.

Dorchester 415

Improved High Bush 415

Kittatinny . .415

Lawton 415

New Rochelle 415

Wilson's Early 415

Cherries.

Apple 382

Belle de Choisy 384

Belle Magnifique 384

Belle d'Orleans 380

Black Eagle 380

Black Tartarian 380

Bigarrean 382

Buttner's Yellow 382

Carnation 384

Cleveland Bigarrenu 382

Coe's Transparent 380

Delicate 380

Donna Maria 385

Downer's Late Red 381

Early Purple Guigne 381

Early Richmond 381

Elkhorn 383

Elton 381

Governor Wood 381

Great Bigarreau 382

Griddley 382

Knight's Early Black 381

Late Duke 385

Louis Philippe 385

May Duke 385

Monstreuse de Mezel 382

Morello 385

Napoleon Bigarreau 383

Ohio Beauty 381

Osceola ...383

Pontiac 383

Red Jacket 383

Reine Hortense 385

Rockport Bigarreau 383

Royal Ann 383

Royal Duke 386

Traclescant's Black Heart 383

Wilkinson 382

Yellow Spanish. 382

Chestnuts.

American Chestnut 435

Chinquapin 435

Dwarf Chestnut 435

Marron 435

Spanish Chestnut 435

Currants.

Black Naples 404

Cherry 404

Houghton Castle 405

La Versaillaise 404

Long-bunched Red 405

Prince Albert ' 405

Red Dutch 405

Shorfc-bunched Red 405

Victoria 405

White Dutch ...405

White Grape 405

Adams. . .
Angelica.

Figs.

..429
..429

488

INDEX.

Angelique 429

Brown Ischia 430

Brown Turkey 430

Brunswick 430

Early Violet. 430

Penrussnta 430

White Genoa 430

Filberts.

Colnirg 435

Cosford 435

Dwarf Prolific 435

Frizzled ..438

Red-skinned 436

White 436

Gooseberries.

English Varieties 405, 406

American Varieties 406

American Seedling 406

Downing 406

Honghton'fi Seedling 406

Mountain Seedling 406

Pale Red 406

Smith's Improved .406

Grapes.

NATIVE VARIETIES.

Black.

Adirondac ..416

Alvey 416

Arnold's No. 1 4-20

Arnold's No. 2 411

Arnold's No. 16 417

Barry 416

Canada 417

Candy's August 421

Christine 420

Clinton 417

Concord 417

Cornucopia 417

Creveling 417

Cynthiana 417

Edinburgh 418

Essex 418

Eumelan 418

Hartford Prolific. . . 418

Herbemont 418

Herbert 418

Isabella 419

Israella 419

Ives' 419

Ives' Seedling 419

Merrimack 419

Miles 419

Norton's Virginia 419

Ontario 420

Othello ^..420

Rogers1 No. 4 420

Rogers' No. 19 419

Rogers1 Wo. 41 418

Rogers" No. 43 416

Rogers' No. 44 418

Senasqua 420

Telegraph 420

To Kalon 420

Union Village 420

Wilder 420

York Madeira 421

Red.

Agawam 421

Catawba 421

Delaware 422

Diana 422

Goethe 422

lona 422

Lindley 423

Massasoit 423

Mottled 423

Rogers' No. 1 422

Rogers' No. 3 423

Rogers' No. 9 423

Rogers' No. 22 423

Salem 423

Walter 423

White.

Allen's Hybrid 424

Arnold's No. 5 424

Autuchon 424

Croton 424

Cuyahpga 424

Lydia.' '.424

Martha 425

Maxatawney 425

Rebecca 425

FOREIGN VARIETIES.

Black or Purple.

Alicante 425

Black Frontignan 425

Black Hamburgh 425

Black Palestine 425

Black St. Peter's 426

Burckhardt's Prince 426

Champion Hamburgh 426

Due de Magenta. 426

Early Black Bordeaux 426

Gros Maroc. . 426

Jura Muscat 426

Lady Downe's 426

Mrs. Prince's Black Muscat 427

Muscat d'Aout

Muscat Hamburgh

Muscat Lierval

Muscat Noir.

.426

426

Trentham Black 427

Bed.
Grizzly Frontignan .427

White.

Bowood Muscat 427

Buckland's Sweetwater 427

Chasselas de Fontainebleau 428

Chasselas Masque 427

Chasselas Royal 427

Decon's Superb 427

Early Silver Frontignan 428

Early Smyrna Frontignan 428

INDEX.

489

Foster's White Seedling 428

Goiden Champion 428

Madeline Royal 428

Pri mavis Frontignan 428

Royal Muscadine . , 428

Syrian... ; 428

Trebbiano 428

White Frontignan 429

While Muscat of Alexandria 429

White Nice 429

mulberries.

Black 416

Everbearing . . .416

Johnson 416

Nectarines.

Boston i 386

Downt.on 386

Early Violet 386

Early Newington 387

El rage 387

Hardwicke's Seedling 387

Hunt's Tawny 387

Lttcombe's Black 387

Pitrnaston Orange 387

Red Roman 387

Rivers' Orange 388

Stan wick 388

Victoria 388

TioleUe Htitive 386

Oranges.

Bergamot 432

Havana 432

Maltese 432

Mandarin 432

Myrtle-leaved 432

Otaheite 432

St. Angnstine 432

St. Michaels 432-

Shaddock 432

Tangerine 432

Variegated-leaved 432

Peaches.

Barnard's Yellow 396

Bellegarde 388

Bergen's Yellow 388

Cole's Early Red 388

Columbia 389

Cooledge's Favorite 389

Crawford's Early 389

Late 389

DruidHill 389

Early Newington Freestone 390

Early Royal George 388

Early Tillotson 390

Early York 390

Freeman 390

George the Fourth 390

Grosee Mignonne 390

Haines' Early '..' 391

Bale's Early 391

Honest John .. ..392

Heath Cling ...391

Heath Free 392

Hyslop's Cling 391

Indian Peach'. 389

Jacques' Rareripe 391

Ken rick' s Heath 392

La Grange 392

Large Early York 392

Late Admirable 392

Lemon Cling 392

Monstreuse de Doue 393

Morris's White 393

Morns' s White Eareripe 393

Noblesse 393

Oldmixon Cling 393

Oldmixon Freestone 898

Red Cheek Melocoton 394

Salway 394

Scott's Nonpareil 394

Serrate Early York 390

Smock Freestone 394

Snow 394

Stump the World 894

Sturtevant 395

Surpassc Melocoton 395

Susqnehanna 395

Teton de Venus 392

Tippecanoe Cling 895

Troth's Early 395

Ward's Late Free 395

Walbnrton Admirable 396

Yellow Alberge 396

Yellow Rajeripe 396

Pears.

Abbott 370

Adams 370

Andre Desportes 370

Andrews 370

Annas d'Et.6 359

Baronne de Mello 359

Bartlett 356

Belle de Flanders 363

Belle Epine Dumas 359

Belle Lucrative 359

Bergamotte d'Esperen 371

Beurr6 Bosc 360

Beurr6 Boussock 362

Benrr6 Brown 371

Benrre Clairgcau £60

Beurre d'Albret 370

Beurre d'Amanlis 370

Beurre d'Angleterre 370

Benrr6 d'Anjon 359

Beurre d'Aremberg 367

Beurr6 de Brignais 360

Beurre del'Assomption 371

Beurre de Nantes 374

Beurre de Waterloo 372

Beurre Diel 360

Beurre Durand 371

Beurr6 Easter 367

Beurre, Golden, of Bilbca 371

Beurre Gris d'Hiver Nouveau 367

Beurre Hardy 360

Beurre Manxion 371

Beurre Moire 371

Beurre Picqitery 366

Beurre Superfin 361

490

INDEX.

Bezi do Montigny. 371

Bezi Esperen. . ..... . . 371

Black Worcester 372

Bloodgood 357

Bonne de Malines 369

Bonne de Puits d'Ansault 372

Bonne Sophia. 372

Brandy wine 357

Buffum 361

Burre Giffard 356

Butter Pear 362

Caen de France 372

Catillac 367

Church 372

Citron des Cannes 358

Clapp's Favorite 357

Coit's Bern-re. 361

Columbia 368

Comte de Flandre 372

Comptesse de Lunay 371

ConseUler de la Cour 364

If Alen.-on ... 368

Dana's Hovey . 368

Dearborn's Seedling 357

Des Nonnes 360

De Tongres 361

Dix 361

Doctor Lindley 372

Doctor Reeder 362

Doyenne Boussock 362

Doyenn6 d' Alencon 368

Doyenne d'Ete..' 357

Doyenne d'Hiver 367

Doyenns cFHiver 3(i8

Doyenne du Cornice 362

Doyenne Gray 362

Doyenne White 362

Duchesse d'Angouleme 363

Due a"1 Aremberg 367

Due de Brabant 372

Due de Bordeaux 3c9

Duchess d' Orleans 372

Duchess Precoce. ... 372

Duchesse de Berry d'Ete 357

Duchesse de Bordeaux 373

Duran deau ' "<51

Edmonds 373

Emile d'Heyst 363

Flemish Beauty 363

Fondante d1 Automne 359

Fondante de-s Charneuse 372

Fulton 363

General Taylor 373

General Tottleben 373

Glout Morceau 368

Gratioli of Jersey 373

Henri Desportes 373

Henry the Fourth 373

Homewood 373

Howell 364

Jalousie dc Fontenay Vendee 373

Jones's Seedling 364

Josephine dc Malines 369

Jules Bront 373

Kingsessing ...374

Kirtland 364

La Cure 369

Lawrence... ...369

I Livingston Virgalieu 374

Louise Bonne tie Jersey 364

Madam Eliza. . 374

Madeleine ....358

Manning's Elizabeth 358

Marechal de la Cour 364

Marie Louise 374

Marie Louise d'Ucclcs 374

Maurice Desporte? 374

Merriam 364

Mount Vernon 374

Nantais 374

Xe Plus Mem is 359

Nouvean Poiteau 374

Onondaga 365

Osband's Summer 358

Oswego Beurre 375

Ott,.: 375

Paradise d'Automne 365

Petite Marguerite 375

Pitmaston Duchess . . 375

Pius the 9th 375

Platt 375

Pound 369

Pratt 365

Rapelye's Seedling 375

Rostiezer 358

Ratter 375

St. Ghislain 375

St. Michael Archangel 365

St. Nicholas 372

Seeker. 365

Sheldon 306

Souvenir d'Esperen. . . 366

Souvenir du Conares 375

Stevens' Genesee 366

Summer Doyenne 357

Summer Virgalieu 358

Swan's Orange 365

Tyson 358

Urbaniste 366

Uvedale's St. Germain 369

Vicar of Winkfiekl 369

Virq alien 362

Washington 366

Williams'1 Bonchretien 356

Williams' d'Hiver 376

Winter Nelis.J 369

Plums.

Autumn Gage 397

Bavay's Green Gage 401

Bleecker's Gage 397

Bradshaw 397

Coe's Golden Drop 397

Columbia 397

Denniston's Superb 398

Dunne's Purple 398

Early Favorite 398

Fellenberg -..398

General Hand 398

German Prune 39J

Green Gage 399

Hnling's Superb 399

Ickworth Impcratrice 399

Imperial Gage 399

Jefferson 399

July Green Gage 400

INDEX.

491

Lawrence's Favorite 400

Lombard ..400

Lucombe's Nonsuch 400

Magnum Bonum 400

Mclaughlin 400

Monroe Gage 400

Ontario 401

Orleans 401

Peters' Yellow Gage 401

Pond's Seedling 401

Prince Englebert 401

Princes 403

Prune d'Agen 401

Quackenbose 401

Reine Claude de Bavay. 401

Robe de Sergent 401

Saint Catherine 402

Saint Lawrence 402

Skates Emperor 402

Shropshire Damson. 402

Smith's Orleans 402

Victoria 402

Wangeuheim 402

Washington 403

Yellow Egg 400

Yellow Gage 403

Quinces.

Angers 377

Apple-shaped .377

Chinese 377

Japan 377

Orange... 377

Pear-shaped 377

Portugal 377

Rea's Seedling 377

Red's Mammoth 377

Van Slyke. .., 377

Raspberries.

FOREIGN VARIETIES.

Belle de Palnau 407

Brinckle's Otwnge .408

Clarke 407

Fastollf 407

Franconia 407

French 407

Hornet 407

Hudson River Antwerp 407

Knevett's Giant 407

Orange 408

Red Antwerp 408

Red Antwerp of the Hudson River

Semper Fidelis

Vice-President French

Victoria

.407
.408
.407

AMERICAN VARIETIES.

American Black Cap 408

Davi son's Thornless 408

Doolittte 408

Joslyrfs Black Cap 408

Mammoth Cluster 408

McCormick 408

Ontario 408

Philadelphia 409

Seneca Black Cay 409

AUTUMN VARIETIES.

Belle de Fontenay ... ... 409

Catawissa 409

Merveille des Quatre Saisons 409

October Red 409

Ohio Everbearing 409

Surpasse Fastollf 410

White Perpetual „. 410

Strawberries.

AMERICAN.

Agriculturist. . . 410

Charles Downing 410

Doivner 410

Downer 411

Downer's Prolific 410

Durand's Seedling 410

Green Prolific 410

Hovey 410

Ida. 411

Jenny Lind 411

Kentucky ., 411

Large Early Scarlet 411

Lennig's White 411

Longworth's Prolific 411

Nicanor 411

Philadelphia 412

President Wilder 412

RusseWs Prolific .412

Russell's Seedling 412

Wilson's Albany 412

Gloede's 413

Golden Queen 413

Jucunda 412

Napoleon III . .412

Perpetual Pine 413

Triomphe de Gand 413

Trollope's Victoria 413

Alpine Bush. 413

Alpine Wood. 413

Autumnal Galland 413

Montreuil 414

HAUTBOIS.

Belle dc Bordelais 414

Monstrous Hautbois 414

Royal Hautbois 414

Tropical Fruits.

Lemon / 433

Lime 433

Pomegranate 433

Pawpaw 434

Custard Apple 434

Walnut*.

Black Walnut 436

Butternut 436

Dwarf Prolific Walnut 436

English Walnut 436

Hickory-Nut 436

Madeira Nut... ...436

UNIVERSITY OP CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

OCT 29 1915
OCT 29 1915

JUN 1 7 '65 -3

30m-l,'15

YB 10133

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